An Islamic Civilization in Europe: Andalusia – 1

An Islamic Civilization in Europe: Andalusia – 1

■ Ibrahim Sediyani

 

     Once upon a time, there was a civilization called Andalusia in the southwest of Europe, on the Iberian Peninsula, which includes all of today’s Spain, Portugal and Andorra, and the southwestern part of France. This was an Islamic civilization.

     Starting from 707, Islamic armies tried to establish dominance in these lands. In 711, the famous Islamic commander Tariq bin Ziyad al-Layti (670 – 720) landed in Gibraltar (Jabal-i Tariq) with a total of 7000 mujahideen and defeated the Visigoth King Rodrigo (688 – 712) in Guadelate in the same year. The Visigothic State collapsed, and the arrival of Ifriqiya Governor Abu Abdurrahman Mousa bin Nousayr bin Abdurrahman Zayd al-Bakri al-Lakhmi (640 – 716) with 18,000 Muslims accelerated the Islamic conquest.

     In 716, Muslims captured all of Spain. Until 750, Andalusia was ruled by governors sent by the Umayyads.

     In Andalusia, which Muslims called “Jazirat’ol-Andoulous” (Andalusian Peninsula), Abdurrahman III bin Muhammad (889 – 961) declared his Khaliphate in 929 and broke off all spiritual ties with the East and the South, that is, the real Islamic lands. Thus, the Islamic State of Andalusia became an “Islamic European State” completely independent of the original Islamic lands. At that time, the Khaliphate of Kourtouba (today’s Córdoba) was the most powerful state in Europe, and the Islamic Civilization of Andalusia was the most advanced civilization of the period, with many active cities, intense trade and handicrafts.

     The period between 756 and 1031 was the brightest period of Andalusia. Kourtouba (Córdoba), the capital of Andalusia, became the third important scientific center of the Islamic world after Baghdad and Cairo.

     In Andalusia, which was the European Islamic State, the Governors’ Period (714 – 756), the Umayyads’ Period (756 – 1031), the Taawaaef’ul-Moulk (Principalities)’ Period (1031 – 1090), the Almoravids’ Period (1090 – 1147), the Almohads’ Period (1146 – 1248), the Ghrnata (Grenada) Sultanate (1232 – 1492) and the Moudajjans and Moriscos’ Period (1492 – 1610) took place respectively.

     With the collapse of the Bani Ahmar State in 1492, 781 years of Islamic rule in Spain ended. After this date, geographical discoveries (Age of Discovery) began.

     For approximately eight centuries, the Muslim Andalusian Civilization on the European continent had a lasting impact on Spain, as well as on the Western world and even Latin America in scientific, cultural and artistic terms. Andalusia has been a civilization where many cultures and civilizations have interacted for centuries and this relationship has been preserved.

     As independent historians have noted, while medieval Crusader Europe was experiencing a dark age, far from rational sciences, as they were thought to be contrary to Christianity, they were not aware of the successes of Muslims at first. However, during the Crusades (1096 – 1291) in the 11th century, Europeans had the opportunity to get to know the Islamic world closely.

     Although the transfer of the knowledge of Islamic civilization to the West actually began in the 10th century, it became systematic and intensive at the beginning of the 12th century. As a result of these activities, Medieval Europe had the opportunity to hear about Ancient Greek Philosophy for the first time. The ideas of Muslim philosophers to reconcile religion and reason had a great impact and laid the groundwork for the intellectual revolution that would take place in Europe after a while. The Andalusian civilization had a preparatory effect on the emergence of the Renaissance and the Reformation movement.

     Andalusian Muslims had made great progress in science and culture. They were at a very advanced level in both religious and human sciences. Since education was given great importance, the number of illiterate people was very low. Education was provided in mosques, madrasahs and libraries. Profound people were trained in every branch of science. Important studies were also carried out in the fields of philosophy and logic in Andalusia.

     Andalusia also significantly influenced Europe in agriculture and architecture. It was the Andalusians who introduced Europe to paper and taught how to obtain tar from acorn and date palm trees.

     The Andalusian Civilization, whose visible effects continue even today, has left a very important mark in Islamic history, European history and world history.

     About Andalusia, such a superior civilization, countless books and articles have been written and unlimited studies and research have been published. Frankly, Andalusia deserves this tremendous attention. As a matter of fact, every biased or impartial researcher agrees that it is a superior civilization.

     In this study, we too will examine the Andalusian Islamic Civilization in Europe in all its aspects.

     Who knows; maybe even though so much has been written about it, there are still some things that are not written, or even want to be written, and maybe we can find them and bring them to light.

     ► Identity and Historical Origin

     ■ ETYMOLOGY OF THE NAME “ANDALUSIA”

     The real name of the place called “Gibraltar” by Europeans is “Jabal-i Tariq” (جبل طارق) and means “Mount Tariq” in Arabic. It is under the sovereignty of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The name of the strait separating Europe and Africa, as well as the Mediterranean and the Atlantic Ocean, is the “Strait of Jabal-i Tariq (Gibraltar)”, and it takes its name from the name of Tariq bin Ziyad al-Layti (670 – 720), the Islamic commander who first brought the Islamic religion to the European continent via Spain. ⁽¹⁾

     When the flag of Islam first began to wave on the European continent, that is, in the Islamic State of Andalusia, the Ifriqiya tribe, a black Muslim people from Africa, founded a city called “Ifriqiya”. Ifriqiya people are the first African black community that Europeans saw. Europeans got to know blacks and Africans through these Ifriqiya people. However, after that, Europeans called all the black people they encountered with this name, “İfriqi”. Today’s name “Africa” was born from here. ⁽²⁾

     Al-Andulus is the Arabic name for the parts of the Iberian Peninsula that were dominated by Muslims between 711 and 1492. ⁽³⁾ “Al-Andalus” (الأندلس), a name given by Muslims to these lands, takes its name from the Vandals, a very deep-rooted tribe of this place. ⁽⁴⁾ Andalusia takes its name from the Silingae Vandals who invaded here in 411. The Vandals, who called the country “Vandalusia”, expanded into Africa in 429. After 458, Vandalusia (Andalusia) gradually came under the control of the Visigoths. ⁽⁵⁾

     The etymology of the word “Andalus” is actually controversial. This word, the name of the Iberian Peninsula or the Muslim-majority part of it, is first attested in inscriptions on coins minted by the new Muslim government of Iberia in 716. ⁽⁶⁾ These coins, called “Dinar”, were written in both Latin and Arabic. ⁽⁷⁾

     The etymology of the name “Al-Andalus” is traditionally derived from the name of the Vandals. ⁽⁸⁾ According to proponents of the traditional theory, it takes its name from the name of the Vandals, a Germanic tribe who established a short-lived empire in Iberia from 409 to 429. However, there is no source evidence for this, and it does not seem credible to say that the name was preserved for almost three centuries until the arrival of Muslims in 711. Proponents of this hypothesis have also recognized the theory’s weaknesses. ⁽⁹⁾ Although they assumed that “Andalus” was derived from the Vandals, it was believed that the name referred geographically only to the – unknown – port from which the Vandals left Iberia for Africa. ⁽¹⁰⁾

     German Islamologist Heinz Halm (1942 – still alive) also suspected that the name was of Germanic origin. According to him, “Andalusia” is the old expression “Gothica Sors” (“Share of the Goths” in Latin). ⁽¹¹⁾ Based on this, “al-” is known by analogy, namely Alexandria (al-Iskandariya), Lombardy (al-Ankoubardiya), Alicante (Latin Leucante, Arabic al-Laqant or Madinat Laqant), etc. and forms a Gothic “landa-hlaut” similar to and was misinterpreted by the Arabs as part of the script.

     German Romanist and linguist Volker Noll (1958 – still alive) opposes Heinz Halm’s thesis and makes evaluations that go back to the Vandal hypothesis. ⁽¹²⁾

     Another German Romanist and linguist Georg Bossong (1948 – still alive), also responded to Halm with arguments based on toponymy, history and language structure: “The history of the name dates back to pre-Roman times, as the name Andaluz exists for many places in the highlands of Castile. Additionally, the morpheme ‘and-’ is not uncommon in Spanish place names, and ‘-luz’ also occurs several times throughout Spain.” ⁽¹³⁾ Bossong also suspects that the name actually refers to an island off the coast of the city of Tarifa. It is the place where an advanced group set foot on present-day Spanish territory in July 710 and is also the southernmost point of the Iberian Peninsula. This name would carry over to the region of Baetica and then to Moorish Spain as a whole. ⁽¹⁴⁾

     However, Bossong’s thesis contradicts the fact that place names containing the word “Andaluz” in their names also come from the Middle Ages and may have been derived from “Andalus”. During the “Repoblación” it was not uncommon for Christian Andalusians to settle in the border areas.

     Since the 1980s, various alternative etymologies have challenged this tradition. ⁽¹⁵⁾ In 1986, Spanish historian and writer Joaquín Vallvé Bermejo (1929 – 2011) suggested that Andalus was a corruption of the name “Atlantis”. ⁽¹⁶⁾ Some researchers, such as Lebanese Maronite Christian priest and theologian Miguel Casiri (1710 – 91), even suggested that the name comes from “Hesperídes” (Εσπερίδες), the fairies of the place where the Sun sets in Ancient Greek mythology. ⁽¹⁷⁾

     After the conquest of Andalusia by the Almoravids, an Islamic mythology developed consisting of lost lands assimilated into the “Islamic Paradise” of divine origin. ⁽¹⁸⁾ In parallel with this, for example, the world-famous Kurdish historian, jurist, literat and poet Ibn Khallikan or with his full name Shamsaddin abu Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Abubakr ibn Khallikan al-Barmaki al-Arbili (1211 – 82) wrote the following: “The sons of Japheth, one of the three sons of the Prophet Noah, were called Andalus, and this was the origin of the name Andalusia given to Spain by Muslims. Because they would be the first people to settle in the region after the Flood.” ⁽¹⁹⁾

     This claim of the Kurdish historian Ibn Khallikan is extremely interesting. According to him, the sons of Japheth, one of the three sons of the Prophet Noah, were called Andalus, and since they were the first people to set foot on the land of Andalusia (today’s Spain) as we know it, the name of the geography became Andalusia. But obviously this is merely a religious allegory; there is almost no chance of this being a historical fact.

     Muslims initially used the name “Andalus” for all the lands they ruled in Spain, including the Septimania region in the south of France, which they held for a while. However, in the course of the development of the “Reconquista” (Taking Back Andalusia from Muslims) movement, which was started by Christians in 718 and continued for approximately eight centuries, and in parallel with the shrinking of the area of Islamic domination, especially from the 11th century, the initially comprehensive meaning of this name began to narrow and eventually the name “Andalus” remained exclusive to the lands administered by the small Emirate of Bani Ahmar (Nasri). The name “Andalucia” is still used in Spain today and refers to the region that includes the provinces of Almeria (Mariya), Granada (Ghrnata), Jaén (Djayyan), Córdoba (Kourtouba), Sevilla (Ishbiliya), Huelva (Walba), Malaga (Malaka) ve Cádiz (Qadis). ⁽²⁰⁾

     Andalus was the Muslim-ruled region of the Iberian Peninsula. The term is used by modern historians for the ancient Islamic states of present-day Gibraltar, Portugal, Spain and southern France. The name describes the different Muslim states that controlled these regions at various times between 711 and 1492. ⁽²¹⁾ Most of the peninsula, in its largest geographical extent, was under Muslim rule. ⁽²²⁾ These borders constantly changed through a series of Crusader invasions that Western historiography has traditionally labeled the “Reconquista”. It eventually shrank further south and eventually into the Emirate of Granada (Ghrnata). ⁽²³⁾

     ■ WHY ANDALUSIA? WHAT WERE THE REASONS THAT DRIVE MUSLIMS TO THESE LANDS?

     After the death (632 AD) of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, his successors began a far-reaching and rapid military expansion. Muslim armies captured the Iranian Sassanid Empire in the east in 651, fought against the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in the north, and advanced towards North Africa in the west. There they encountered greater resistance in subjugating the Berber (Amazigh) tribes. The total occupation of North Africa took place during the reign (685 – 705) of the Umayyad Khaliph Abu Waled Abdoulmalek ibn Marwan ibn Hakam (646 – 705). With the conquest of the Maghreb, the Arabs had firmly established their dominance in the Southern Mediterranean. ⁽²⁴⁾

     Mazandarish historian Tabari or with his full name Abu Djafar Mohammad ibn Djarer ibn Yasid al-Amouli at-Tabari (839 – 923), who is considered one of the greatest historians of Islamic history, quotes a narration attributed to the 3rd Khaliph Uthman ibn Affan (576 – 656), stating that the road to Constantinopolis (today’s Istanbul) passes through Iberia: “Constantinopolis could only be conquered through Iberia. If you conquer Iberia, you will share the same reward with those who conquered Constantinopolis.” ⁽²⁵⁾

     The conquest of Iberia came after the conquest of the Maghreb. US-American historian and Byzantine history expert Walter Emil Kaegi (1937 – 2022) thinks that Tabari’s report is doubtful and that the motivation for the conquest of the far western parts of the Mediterranean was military, political and of course religious opportunities. Kaegi thinks this was not a change of direction because the Muslims did not conquer Constantinopolis in 678. ⁽²⁶⁾

     According to US medieval historian Jessica Ann Coope (1958 – still alive), pre-modern Muslim conquests were not like Christianization efforts. Because: “Christianization was imposed on everyone as part of a negotiated submission and thus did not have the element of personal belief found in modern religious beliefs. In contrast, ‘dar’ul-harb’ was not motivated by the goal of converting the entire population to Islam, but by the belief that everyone would live better under Islamic rule.” ⁽²⁷⁾

     Strictly speaking, it is unclear exactly what happened in Iberia in the early 8th century. A Christian source for the period, the “Chronicle of 754” (“Mozarabic Chronicle” or “Continuatio Hispana”), is considered reliable but often obscure. ⁽²⁸⁾ There is no Muslim narrative of the period, and Muslim works, such as the compilations of the 17th-century Algerian historian and biographer Shihabadden abu Abbas Ahmad ibn Mohammad ibn Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Maqqari al-Tilmisani (1577 – 1632), are biased and reflect ideological influence. ⁽²⁹⁾ The scarcity of early sources means that detailed specific claims must be treated with caution. ⁽³⁰⁾

     The Umayyads took control of Hispania from the Visigoths, who ruled for nearly 300 years. ⁽³¹⁾ At the time of the conquest, the Visigothic upper class was beginning to fragment and had many problems with succession and maintaining power. This was partly because Visigoths made up only 1% to 2% of the population. ⁽³²⁾ This made it difficult to maintain control over a rebellious population.

     The ruler of the Visigoths at that time was King Rodrigo (? – 711) ⁽³³⁾, but the manner of his accession to the throne unclear is. There are accounts of a falling out with his predecessor, Wittiza (687 – 710)’s son Aguila II (? – 714). Kingdom lists that mention Aguila but not Rodrigo are consistent with civil war narratives of the period. ⁽³⁴⁾ Numismatic evidence shows a division of royal authority, with several different currencies being minted, with Aguila II remaining “King of Tarraconsense and Septimania” until ca. 713. ⁽³⁵⁾ The nearly contemporary “Chronicle of 754” portrays Rodrigo as having usurped the throne and winning the alliance of other Goths by deception, while the less reliable late 9th-century “Chronicle of Alfonso III” describes Rodrigo as bishop of Seville and possibly Wittiza’s brother and it shows clear hostility towards Oppa (? – ?) and contains an unusually heroic dialogue with Pelagius (? – ?). ⁽³⁶⁾

     There is also the story of Count Julian (? – ?) of Septe, whose wife or daughter was raped by Rodrigo and sought help from Tangier in Morocco. ⁽³⁷⁾ However, these stories are not included in the early records of the conquest. ⁽³⁸⁾

     The specific reason for the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arabs is unclear due to a lack of sources, as is the exact course of the conquest, which lasted several years. Essentially, only late and biased sources exist regarding Christian and Muslim historiography. It is possible that these “moves of conquest” were initially merely plundering raids, and only when the advance into the Pyrenees Peninsula initially proved relatively easy did Muslim commanders decide to conquer it permanently and subsequently establish a state. ⁽³⁹⁾

     In any case, the weakening of the Visigoths due to internal power struggles between the various royal clans and the factionalized aristocracy made it easier for invaders to dismantle their empire. Conflicts between the Visigoth King Rodrigo, who came to power in 710, and the family of his predecessor, Wittiza, who contested his rights to the throne, may have been known by Abu Abdurrahman Mousa bin Nousayr bin Abdurrahman Zayd al-Bakri al-Lakhmi (640 – 716), who was the governor of the Umayyad State in North Africa and operated successfully in the Maghreb. It is even said by later incredible sources that Muslims were summoned to the country by Byzantine Count Julian of Septe or by supporters of the defeated Wittiza family. ⁽⁴⁰⁾

     The first exploratory missions to Hispania by Mousa bin Nousayr, the Umayyad governor of North Africa, returned with reports of “great splendor and beauty”, which increased the Muslims’ desire to invade Hispania. For example, Algerian historian and biographer Ahmad al-Maqqari describes one of the many raids in 710 as follows: “The Muslims made many raids towards the mainland, resulting in rich booty and many slaves. These slaves were so handsome that Mousa bin Nousayr and his friends had never seen anything like them before.” ⁽⁴¹⁾

     Just as the Byzantines viewed the Arabs as “barbarians” and feared their invasion, the natives of Hispania viewed the Berbers in the same way. Ahmad al-Maqqari explains this situation as follows: “When some of the scattered tribes of Berbers living on the northern coast of Africa approached the seashore, the fear and astonishment of the Iberians increased, and they flew in all directions for fear of the threatened invasion, and their fear of the Berbers increased so much that it became inculcated in their nature, and later became evident in their character. It has become a feature. On the other hand, the Berbers, who learned about the ill-will and hatred of the Iberian people towards them, hated and envied them even more. There are few people who do not hate an Iberian in the most sincere way.” ⁽⁴²⁾

     This was the religious, political and social situation in the northwestern and southwestern lands of the Mediterranean before Tariq bin Ziyad sailed to Iberia in 711.

     ■ ARE THE CLAIMS TRUE, THAT ANDALUSIA WAS CONQUERED DURING THE TIME OF THE THIRD KHALIPHA UTHMAN?

     One of the most interesting and surprising historical claims about the conquest of Andalusia by Muslims is the narratives in some Islamic sources that Andalusia was actually conquered not in 711, but long before that, in the year 27 Hijri (647 – 648 AD), during the time of the 3rd Khaliph Uthman ibn Affan (576 – 656).

     But how true are these and how is such a thing possible?

     The strange thing is that this “claim” or, if true, “information” is found in many reliable Islamic history sources. Some of the early Islamic scholars and historians actually made statements in this direction.

     Now I would like to convey those resources to you, our dear readers…

     Mazandarish historian Tabari or with his full name Abu Djafar Mohammad ibn Djarer ibn Yasid al-Amouli at-Tabari (839 – 923), who is considered one of the greatest historians of Islamic history, explains the following in his immortal work “Tarikh”:

     “As-Sari conveyed it to me in writing from Shuayb, he from Sayf, and he from Muhammad and Talha.

     Those two said: ‘When Uthman became khaliph… He ordered two Abdollahs (Abdollah bin Nafii bin Abdolqays and Abdollah bin Nafii bin Husayn, both from the Fyhr tribe) to be appointed as the head of the army, and he set out with the soldiers and sent them to Andalusia. He ordered the two of them and Abdollah bin Saad bin abu Sarh to come together as soon as possible… Uthman sent Abdollah bin Nafii bin Husayn and Abdollah bin Nafii bin Abdolqays from Ifriqiya to Andalusia. They reached there by sea. Uthman wrote a letter to the authorities from the people of Andalusia as follows: ‘Ammâ baad, know that Constantinopolis will only be conquered from the direction of Andalusia. If you conquer there (Andalusia), you will share in the reward with those who conquered the other place (Constantinopolis), wassalam.’

     Kaab al-Ahbar said: ‘The people who crossed the sea and arrived there will conquer Andalusia. On the Day of Judgment, they will be recognized by their light.’

     They went on a campaign with the Berbers. They came there by land and sea. Allah granted Muslims the conquest of there (Spain) and France. The domination of Muslims developed as in Ifriqiya.

     When Uthman dismissed Abdollah bin Saad bin abu Sarh, he appointed Abdollah bin Nafii bin Abdolqays instead (to Ifriqiya and Andalusia). While Abdollah bin Nafii was there, Abdollah bin Saad returned to Egypt.

     The situation in Andalusia continued as in Ifriqiya until the time of Hisham. Berbers defended their own lands. Those who remained in Andalusia continued to live on their own.” ⁽⁴³⁾

     Hanbali scholar and Arab jurist, haddith, physician, geographer, linguist and man of letters Ibn Djawzi or with his full name Abu Faraj Djamaluddin Abdurrahman bin Aly bin Muhammad al-Baghdadi (1116 – 1201), who is known for his works in almost every branch of Islamic sciences, also wrote in his work titled “Al-Mountazam fi Tarikh’il-Moulouk wa’l-Oumam”, a long chain of narrations. He included the news that came through As-Sari bin Yahya in Tabari. ⁽⁴⁴⁾

     Kurdish historian, man of letters and haddith Ibn Athir or with his full name Bave Hasan Izzeddeen Aly kure Mohammad kure Mohammad kure Abdolkareem kure Abdolwaaheed esh-Shejbani al-Djazari (1160 – 1233), who is considered one of the greatest historians of Islamic history, explains the following in his famous work “Al-Kameel fi’t-Tarikh”:

     “When Ifriqiya was conquered, Uthman this time ordered Abdollah bin Nafii bin Husayn and Abdollah bin Nafii bin Abdplqays to go towards Andalusia. They also arrived there by sea. Uthman wrote to the officials who were with them: ‘Amma baad, know that Constantinopolis will only be conquered from the direction of Andalusia. If you conquer there (Andalusia), you will share in the reward with those who conquered there (Constantinopolis), wassalam.’

     They went on an expedition with the Berbers. They reached there by land and sea. Allah granted conquest to Muslims. Muslims’ domination there expanded as in Ifriqiya.

     When Uthman dismissed Abdollah bin Saad from Ifriqiya, he replaced him with Abdollah bin Nafii bin Abdolqays. While Abdollah bin Nafii was there, Abdollah bin Saad returned to Egypt.” ⁽⁴⁵⁾

     In the work of the Turkish historian and preacher Sebt ibn Djawzi or with his full name Abu Mouzaffar Shamsaddeen Jousouf bin Kezoghlou at-Turki al-Awny al-Baghdadi (1186 – 1256), titled “Meerat’uz- Zaman fi Tarikh’il-Ayan”, the chain of narration was memorized and quoted only with reference to Sayf bin Umar. ⁽⁴⁶⁾

     Kurdish historian, geographer and philosopher Ismael Abu’l-Feedaa bin Aly bin Mahmoud Malek Moayyeed Imadaddeen (1273 – 1331), a great Islamic scholar from Rojava, who was also the emir of Hama of the Ayyubid Kurdish State between 1320 and 1331, reported the following about this event in his work titled “Tarikh”:

     “During the time of Uthman, Ifriqiya was conquered. The person who undertook this job was the aforementioned Abdollah bin Saad bin abu Sarh. He sent khums (one fifth of the income) to Uthman. Marwan bin Hakam also bought it for 500,000 dinars. Uthman reduced the amount he would pay for Marwan. This was one of the things that caused him to be reviled.

     When Ifriqiya was conquered, Uthman ordered Abdollah bin Nafii bin Husayn to head towards Andalusia. He also fought on this side. Then Abdullah bin Nafii returned to Ifriqiya and was made to reside there by Uthman. Abdollah bin Saad returned to Egypt.” ⁽⁴⁷⁾

     Turkmen historian, hadith and recitation scholar Zahabi or with his full name Abu Abdollah Shamsaddeen Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Uthman bin Qajmaz bin Abdollah az-Zahabi at-Turkmeni al-Fariqi ad-Dymashki (1274 – 1348) explains the following about this event in his work titled “Tarikh’ul-Islam al-Kabeer”:

     “Sayf bin Umar narrated from his teachers that Uthman immediately sent Abdollah bin Nafii bin Husayn and Abdollah bin Nafii bin Abdolqays al-Fihri to Andalusia. They came there by sea. Uthman wrote a letter to those who went to Andalusia:‘Amma baad, know that Constantinopolis will only be conquered from the direction of Andalusia. If you conquer there (Andalusia), you will share in the reward with those who conquered the other place (Constantinopolis), wassalam.’

     In the narration from Kaab al-Ahbar, he said: ‘The people who crossed the sea and arrived there will conquer Andalusia. On the Day of Judgment they will be recognized by their light.’ He said: ‘Thereupon they came there by land and sea. Allah granted Muslims the conquest of that place. The domination of Muslims developed as in Ifriqiya.’

     The situation in Andalusia continued as in Ifriqiya until the time of Hisham. Berbers defended their own lands..” ⁽⁴⁸⁾

     Arab historian Ibn Kathir or with his full name Abu’l- Feedaa Imadouddeen Ismael bin Umar ibn Dawoud ibn Kathir al-Qourashi al-Dimashki al-Busrawi (1301 – 73), who is considered one of the greatest historians of Islamic history, wrote the following about the incident in his masterpiece, “Al-Beedaja wa’n-Neehaja”:

     “When Ifriqiya was conquered, Uthman sent Abdollah bin Nafii bin Abdolqays and Abdollah bin Nafii bin Husayn, both from the Fihr tribe, towards Andalusia. They also came there from the sea side. Uthman wrote to those who went on an expedition there: ‘Know that Constantinopolis can only be conquered by sea. If you conquer Andalusia, you will share until the last moment the reward with those who conquered Constantinopolis, wassalam.’

      He said: ‘They advanced towards it and conquered it. Praise and gratitude be to Allah.’” ⁽⁴⁹⁾

     English historian and politician Edward Gibbon (1737 – 94), in his book “The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire”, gave this development by quoting the Rojava Kurdish historian Abu’l-Feedaa, however, instead of the expression “conquest”, he used the word “attack”, meaning that the Muslims did not stay in Andalusia. ⁽⁵⁰⁾

     Arab historian and Ash’ari theologian Ahmad Zajni Dahlan Al-Mekki (1816 – 86)Ahmed Zeyni, who was the mufti of Mecca during his lifetime, also mentioned this development based on classical sources in his work titled “Al-Futuhat’ul-Islamiyya baada Mudeejj’el-Foutouhaat’en-Nabaweejja”. ⁽⁵¹⁾

     The person who expresses this claim most strongly in our current period is the famous Indian Islamic historian, jurist and religious scholar Muhammad Hamidullah (1908 – 2002). Hamidullah, in his article “Fath’ol-Andalus (Isbania) fi Hilafaty Sayyeedeena Uthman Sana 27 le’l-Hijri” (Conquest of Andalusia (Spain) during the Khaliphate of Uthman in 27 Hijri) published in 1978, explains that Muslims entered Andalusia in 27 Hijri (647 – 648 AD), during the time of Khaliph Uthman, long before 711, and that these Muslims stayed in Andalusia until the final conquest during the Umayyad period. In the article, first the relations between the Byzantines and Muslims during the time of the prophet Muhammad and the khaliphs Abu Bakr as-Siddiq (573 – 634) and Umar ibn Khattab (583 – 644) are mentioned, then the period of the next khaliph Uthman is mentioned and the following information is given in summary: “In the face of Khaliph Uthman’s Iranian Empire submitting to Muslims in a short time, the Byzantine Empire resisting despite various military and political defeats and being a constant problem for Muslims, on the one hand, he sent the governor of Syria through Anatolia, and on the other hand, he sent the governor of Africa to Andalusia. He assigned him the task of pressuring Byzantium. With this, Khaliph Uthman wanted Constantinopolis, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, to be captured by being squeezed from both the east and the west, and thus the Muslims would be freed from this constant Byzantine pressure. Following this first conquest attempt of Andalusia, Muslim armies entered Andalusia in 27 Hijri, long before the Umayyads. Historical sources from the classical period clearly focused on this subject of conquest, which was later forgotten for some reason.” ⁽⁵²⁾

     As you can see, the most important Muslim historians of Islamic history narrated this event and wrote that Muslims first conquered Andalusia – as we know it – not by Tariq bin Ziyad in 711, but exactly 64 years before that, during the reign of the 3rd Khaliph Uthman bin Affan. All of these are Muslim historians of great weight and seriousness. Respectively; Mazandarish historian Tabari, Arab historian Ibn Djawzi, Kurdish historian Ibn Athir, Turkish historian Sebt ibn Djawzi, Kurdish historian Abu’l-Feedaa, Turkmen historian Zahabi, Arab historian Ibn Kathir and Arab historian Ahmad Zajni Dahlan wrote down this incident as an absolute fact and without any doubt in their minds.

     But can this really be true?

     First of all, I must state that all of the Muslim historians whose names are mentioned here are extremely valuable scholars, and I have great love and respect for all of them. However, these narratives that Muslims conquered Andalusia during the time of 3rd Khaliph Osman do not seem very convincing to me. If it were so, this information would be written by many historians around the world and Europe and would also be included in general history books. Of course, it is God who knows the truth of everything and the absolute truth is in His presence, but my personal opinion is that there is no possibility of this being true, it cannot be.

     Mehmet Özdemir (1957 – still alive), a historian and theologian from Tokat who has produced valuable studies on Andalusia and is one of the valuable researchers in our country, also does not believe that this is true. Özdemir says the following regarding this sensational claim:

     “It should not be overlooked that there are some narrations stating that the conquest of Spain began and even was completed in the time of Uthman, in 647 – 648 (Hijri 27). Moreover, in some contemporary studies, based on these narrations, it is emphasized that the conquest of Spain began exactly 64 years before this date, instead of the generally accepted year 711 (92 Hijri).

     The first and oldest source containing these narrations is Tabari (d. 922)’s ‘Tarikh’. Later historians Ibn Athir (d. 1232), Abu’l-Feedaa (d. 1332), Ibn Izari (13th century), Ibn Kathir (d. 1372); Al-Himyari (d. 1461), one of the geographers, quoted the narrations in Tabari either verbatim or partially. Therefore, it would not be wrong to call the narrations in question ‘Tabari narrations’. The only basis that today’s researchers rely on when considering Tabari’s narrations as true is that they were conveyed by Tabari and the later historians whose names are mentioned.

     In fact, when approached carefully, it is not difficult to realize that the narrations in question are problematic and therefore extremely weak in terms of authenticity. First of all, such an important news should have been written before Tabari’s ‘Tarikh’. This event should have been in Balazuri (d. 279 / 892)’s ‘Foutouh’ol-Bouldaan’, which contains news about the first Islamic conquests. It should have been explained in Ibn Abdolhakam (d. 257 / 870)’s ‘Foutouh-u Ifrqiya wa’l- Andalus’, which is about the conquest of Egypt, Maghrib and Andalusia. More importantly, such an event was not included, even by allusion, in works such as the ‘Kitab’ot-Tarikh’ of the famous jurist and historian Abdulmalek bin Habeeb (d. 238 / 852), who collected many news about the conquest of Andalusia and was also a member of this country. These are important data that make the authenticity of the above narrations questionable. If Andalusia had really been conquered during the reign of Uthman, it would certainly have had a great impact on the conditions of that time. In this case, famous historians such as Balazuri, Ibn Abdolhakam and Abdolmalek bin Habeeb, who specifically studied the conquests, or their news sources should have been aware of this in some way and reflected it in their narrations or works.

     On the other hand, in the narrations of Tabari, as stated above, it is stated that the Muslims who conquered Andalusia during the time of Uthman settled here permanently. On the other hand, in all Islamic sources before and after Tabari, it is recorded that the conquest of Andalusia was initiated in 711 AD (92 Hijri) by Tariq bin Ziyad, who was appointed by the North African governor Mousa bin Nousayr. Let’s assume for a moment that all of these narrations are true and accept the existence of two separate conquests, one during the reign of Uthman and the other in 711: In this case, since it is stated that Muslims settled in Andalusia permanently after the first conquest, Tariq bin Ziyad and Mousa bin Nousayr should have encountered these people and their works in Spain during the second conquest that started in 711 AD. On the contrary, in none of the narrations describing the conquest that started in 711, there is not the slightest allusion to the conquest that is claimed to have taken place during the reign of Uthman, nor is there any information that Tariq and Mousa encountered any living or inanimate Islamic traces or remains in Spain while carrying out the conquest campaign.

     Another issue about which there is no information is the identity of the commanders named Abdollah bin Nafii bin Husayn and Abdollah bin Nafii bin Abdolqays, who are claimed to have been assigned by Uthman to conquer Andalusia. The names of these commanders are mentioned only in Tabari’s relevant narration, but are not found in other sources.

     Regarding Tabari narrations, it is especially necessary to add the information that their main source is Sayf bin Umar. It has been revealed that Sayf many times conveyed information that was not confirmed by other sources in the narrations about the conquests, made mistakes in the dating of the conquests, and used unknown names in the attribution of the narrations. It would not be wrong to see the above narrations about the conquest of Andalusia in this context..” ⁽⁵³⁾

     For all these reasons, it does not seem possible to accept Tabari’s narrations that Andalusia was conquered during the time of 3rd Khaliph Uthman as true, and therefore to adopt the view that the conquest of Spain took place during the time of Uthman. In fact, a similar opinion was expressed exactly four centuries ago by the Algerian historian and biographer Shihabadden abu Abbas Ahmad ibn Mohammad ibn Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Maqqari al-Tilmisani (1577 – 1632), the author of the encyclopedic work called “Nafh’ot-Teb men Ghushn’el-Andalus’er-Rateeb wa Zykrou Waziriha Lysan’ed-Deen Ibn-el-Khateeb” on Andalusian culture and civilization. Algerian historian Al-Maqqari, after summarizing the rumors that Andalusia was conquered during the reign of Khaliph Uthman, makes the following accurate assessment: “Even though Ibn Bashkuval and others narrated these, in my opinion they have no historical reality. When did Uthman send an army to Andalusia?! The conquest of this country took place in the time of Walid by alliance.” ⁽⁵⁴⁾

     As can be seen, the rumors and narratives that Andalusia was conquered during the time of Khaliph Uthman do not reflect the truth.

     Andalusia was conquered by Tariq bin Ziyad in 711.

– will continue – 

     FOOTNOTES:

⁽¹⁾: İbrahim Sediyani, Adını Arayan Coğrafya, p. 37, Özedönüş Yayınları, Istanbul 2009 / İbrahim Sediyani, Die Verlorenen Länder Europas, p. 31, Koschi Verlag, Elbingerode 2022

⁽²⁾: İbrahim Sediyani, Adını Arayan Coğrafya, p. 37 – 38, Özedönüş Yayınları, Istanbul 2009

⁽³⁾: John Louis Esposito, Oxford Dictionary of Islam, article “Al-Andalus”, Oxford University Press, Oxford & Madrid & Istanbul & Toronto & New York & Ciudad de México & São Paulo & Buenos Aires & Cape Town & Nairobi & Dar es Salaam & Karachi & New Delhi & Kolkata & Bombay & Bangkok & Chennai & Hong Kong & Shanghai & Taipei & Tokyo & Kuala Lumpur & Auckland & Melbourne 2003

⁽⁴⁾: İbrahim Sediyani, Die Verlorenen Länder Europas, p. 27, Koschi Verlag, Elbingerode 2022

⁽⁵⁾: İbrahim Sediyani, Wikinger: Horden aus dem Norden, p. 181, Koschi Verlag, Elbingerode 2023

⁽⁶⁾: Sabine Panzram – Laurent Callegarin, Entre Civitas y Madina: El Mundo de las Ciudades en la Península Ibérica y en el Norte de África (Siglos IV-IX), p. 145, Editorial Casa de Velázquez, Madrid 2018

⁽⁷⁾: Jerrilynn D. Dodds, Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain, Michael L. Bates, “The Islamic Coinage of Spain”, p. 384, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York 1992 / Thomas F. Glick, Islamic And Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages, volume 27, p. 21, Brill Publishing, Leiden & Boston 2005

⁽⁸⁾: İbrahim Sediyani, Die Verlorenen Länder Europas, p. 27, Koschi Verlag, Elbingerode 2022 / İbrahim Sediyani, Wikinger: Horden aus dem Norden, p. 181, Koschi Verlag, Elbingerode 2023

⁽⁹⁾: Reinhart Pieter Anne Dozy, Recherches Sur l’Histoire et la Littérature des Arabes d’Espagne Pendant le Moyen-Age, cilt 1, Éditions Brill, Leyde 1881

⁽¹⁰⁾: Heinz Halm, Al-Andalus und Gothica Sors, Der Islam, issue 66, p. 252 – 263, 1989, https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/islm.1989.66.2.252/html

⁽¹¹⁾: ibid

⁽¹²⁾: Günter Holtus – Johannes Kramer – Wolfgang Schweickard, Italica et Romanica, Volker Noll, “Anmerkungen zur Spanischen Toponymie”, p. 199 – 210, Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen 1997

⁽¹³⁾: David Restle – Dietmar Zaefferer, Sounds and Systems: Studies in Structure and Change, Georg Bossong, “Der Name Al-Andalus: Neue Überlegungen zu Einem Alten Problem”, p. 149 – 164, De Gruyter Verlag, Berlin 2002

⁽¹⁴⁾: ibid

⁽¹⁵⁾: Pablo Cantó, De Dónde Vienen los Nombres de las Comunidades Autónomas Españolas, El País, 25 September 2016, https://verne.elpais.com/verne/2016/09/09/articulo/1473434604_706233.html

⁽¹⁶⁾: Joaquín Vallvé Bermejo, La División Territorial de la España Musulmana, Editorial Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Instituto de Filogogía, Departamento de Estudios Arabes, p. 55 – 59, Madrid 1986

⁽¹⁷⁾: Miguel Casiri, Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis Sive Librorum Omnium Mss Quos Arabicč Ab Auctoribus Magnam Partem Arabo-Hispanis Compositos Bibliotheca Coe, volume 2, p. 327, Editorial BiblioBazaar, Madrid 2011

⁽¹⁸⁾: Manuela Marin, Al-Andalus-España: Historiografías en Contraste, Pascal Buresi, “Al-Andalus entre Orient et Occident: L’Invention des Origines”, p. 119 – 129, Collection de la Casa de Velázquez, Madrid 2009

⁽¹⁹⁾: Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat’ol- Aayaan wa Anbaa-o Abnaa’ez- Zaman Mimmaa Shabata bi’n- Naql awe’s- Samaa aw Ashbatah’ol- Aayaan, Nashriyat’el- Najjar, Cairo 1299

⁽²⁰⁾: İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 11, Mehmet Özdemir, “Endülüs”, p. 211, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 1995

⁽²¹⁾: José Ángel García de Cortázar y Ruiz de Aguirre, V Semana de Estudios Medievales: Nájera, p. 52, Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, Madrid 1995 / Eloy Benito Ruano, Tópicos y Realidades de la Edad Media, volume 2, p. 79, Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid 2002

⁽²²⁾: Dale T. Irvin – Scott W. Sunquist, History of the World Christian Movement, volume 1: “Earliest Christianity To 1453”, s. 30, A&C Black Publishing, Edinburg 2002 / Natalie Fryde – Dirk Reitz, Walls, Ramparts and Lines of Demarcation: Selected Studies from Antiquity to Modern Times, Fernando Luis Corral, “The Christian Frontier Against al-Andalus (Muslim Spain): Concept and Politics During the Reigns of King Fernando I of Castile and Leon and his Successors Until 1230”, p. 67, LIT Publishing, Münster 2009 / Clifford J. Rogers – William Caferro – Shelley Reid, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, volume 1, Francisco García Fitz, p. 325 – 326, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010

⁽²³⁾: José Ángel García de Cortázar y Ruiz de Aguirre, V Semana de Estudios Medievales: Nájera, p. 52, Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, Madrid 1995 / Eloy Benito Ruano, Tópicos y Realidades de la Edad Media, volume 2, p. 79, Real Academia de la Historia, Madrid 2002 / John Louis Esposito, Oxford Dictionary of Islam, article “Al-Andalus”, Oxford University Press, Oxford & Madrid & Istanbul & Toronto & New York & Ciudad de México & São Paulo & Buenos Aires & Cape Town & Nairobi & Dar es Salaam & Karachi & New Delhi & Kolkata & Bombay & Bangkok & Chennai & Hong Kong & Shanghai & Taipei & Tokyo & Kuala Lumpur & Auckland & Melbourne 2003 / Ríos Saloma – Martín Federico, La Reconquista: Una Construcción Historiográfica (siglos XVI-XIX), Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México & Madrid 2011 / Alejandro García Sanjuán, Weaponizing Historical Knowledge: The Notion of Reconquista in Spanish Nationalism, Imago Temporis: Medium Aevum, issue 14, p. 133 – 162, 2020, https://repositori.udl.cat/items/95c719b0-7219-4ddc-ad7e-f439ab9a10b8

⁽²⁴⁾: Klaus Herbers, Geschichte Spaniens im Mittelalter, p. 74 et seq., Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 2006

⁽²⁵⁾: Tabari, Tarikh, volume 1, p. 2817, Cairo undated / Ibn-i Kathir, Al-Beedaja wa’n-Neehaja, volume 7, p. 144, Cairo 1939 / Ibn Athir, Al-Kameel fi’t-Tarikh, volume 3, p. 93, Beirut 1987

⁽²⁶⁾: Walter Emil Kaegi, Muslim Expansion and Byzantine Collapse in North Africa, p. 260, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2010

⁽²⁷⁾: Jessica Ann Coope, The Most Noble of People: Religious, Ethnic and Gender Identity in Muslim Spain, p. 32, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 2017

⁽²⁸⁾: Roger Collins, The Arab Conquest of Spain (710 – 797), p. 28, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford & Cambridge 1989

⁽²⁹⁾: ibid, p. 31

⁽³⁰⁾: ibid, p. 25 – 26

⁽³¹⁾: Hugh Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of Al-Andalus, Longman Publishing, London 1996

⁽³²⁾: Brian A. Catlos, Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain, Basic Books, New York 2018

⁽³³⁾: Roger Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 151, St. Martin’s Press, New York 1983

⁽³⁴⁾: Roger Collins, The Arab Conquest of Spain (710 – 797), p. 33, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford & Cambridge 1989

⁽³⁵⁾: ibid, p. 32 – 33

⁽³⁶⁾: ibid, p. 17 ve 32 – 33

⁽³⁷⁾: ibid, p. 31 – 32

⁽³⁸⁾: Adèle Rucquoi, Histoire Médiéval de la Péninsule Ibérique, p. 71, Éditions du Seuil, Paris 1993

⁽³⁹⁾: Mischa Meier, Geschichte der Völkerwanderung, p. 890, Beck Verlag, Munich 2019

⁽⁴⁰⁾: Klaus Herbers, Geschichte Spaniens im Mittelalter, p. 77 et seq., Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 2006

⁽⁴¹⁾: Ahmad ibn Muhammad Maqqarī – Ibn al-Khatīb, The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain: Extracted from the Nafhu-t-Tíb min Ghosni-l-Andalusi-r-Rattíb wa Táríkh Lisánu-d-Dín, volume 1, Oriental Translation Fund Publishing, London 1840

⁽⁴²⁾: ibid, p. 259

⁽⁴³⁾: Tabari, Tarikh, volume 5, p. 2814 – 2817, Leiden 1893

⁽⁴⁴⁾: Ibn Djawzi, Al-Mountazam fi Tarikh’il-Moulouk wa’l-Oumam, volume 4, p. 362, Beirut 1992

⁽⁴⁵⁾: Ibn Athir, Al-Kameel fi’t-Tarikh, volume 3, p. 93, Beirut 1987

⁽⁴⁶⁾: Sebt ibn Djawzi, Meerat’uz- Zaman fi Tarikh’il-Ayan, volume 5, p. 449, Damascus 2013

⁽⁴⁷⁾: Abu’l-Feedaa Malek Moayyeed Imadaddeen, Tarikh, volume 1, p. 262, Beirut 1997

⁽⁴⁸⁾: Zahabi, Tarikh’ul-Islam al-Kabeer, volume 2, p. 80, Cairo 1367

⁽⁴⁹⁾: Ibn-i Kathir, Al-Beedaja wa’n-Neehaja, volume 7, p. 144, Cairo 1939

⁽⁵⁰⁾: Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, volume 5, p. 555, Strahan & Cadell Publishing, London 1789

⁽⁵¹⁾: Ahmad Zajni Dahlan, Al-Futuhat’ul-Islamiyya baada Mudeejj’el-Foutouhaat’en-Nabaweejja, volume 1, p. 100, Cairo 1968

⁽⁵²⁾: Muhammad Hamidullah, Fath’ol-Andalus (Isbania) fi Hilafaty Sayyeedeena Uthman Sana 27 le’l-Hijri, İslam Tetkikleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, issue 7, p. 221 – 226, Istanbul 1978

⁽⁵³⁾: Mehmet Özdemir, Endülüs Müslümanları (Siyasî Tarih), p. 44 – 46, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 2012

⁽⁵⁴⁾: Ahmad al-Maqqari, Nafh’ot-Teb men Ghushn’el-Andalus’er-Rateeb wa Zykrou Waziriha Lysan’ed-Deen Ibn-el-Khateeb, volume 1, p. 204 – 205, Cairo 1885

     SEDİYANİ HABER

     6 MAY 2024