An Islamic Civilization in Europe: Andalusia – 3
■ Ibrahim Sediyani
– continued from last chapter –
Let’s go back to the subject of the forced “Islamization” of the Berbers by the Arabs and continue the story from the 660s…
The first Arab military expeditions to North Africa (Maghreb) between 642 and 669 resulted in the spread of Islam. These first raids, carried out from a base in Egypt, were carried out on local initiative rather than on the orders of the central caliphate. However, when the center of the caliphate was moved from Medina-i Munawwara in Arabia to Damascus in Syria, the Umayyads (a Muslim dynasty that reigned from 661 to 750) predicted that the strategic necessity of dominating the Mediterranean required a concerted military effort on the North African front. Between 665 and 689, a new Arab invasion was witnessed in North Africa.
Umayyad Caliph Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan (602 – 80) found the proposal to establish a camp city appropriate for the easier conquest of North Africa and gave this task to Ifriqiya General Uqba ibn Naafi ibn Abdolqays al-Qoreyshi al-Fihri (622 – 83). (155) Later, a force of 10,000 Muslims led by Uqba ibn Naafi and expanded by thousands more arrived in the region. The army set out from Damascus, marched towards Africa and took the lead. (156) In 670, an Arab army under the command of Uqba ibn Naafi founded the city of Kairouan, approximately 160 km south of Tunis, the capital of today’s Tunisia. (157) It is the first Arab city in this geography. Muslims used the city as a base for operations against the Numidians in the west and in the highlands of present-day Algeria.
The Arabs, who started to invade and take over the North African lands, started to “Arabize” this geography in the name of “Religion”, destroy its demography and implement assimilation policies without wasting any time. After capturing these regions of Tunisia and establishing the city of Kairouan, the Arab population brought from the east was settled in this city. (158)
Immediately after establishing the city of Kairouan, Muslims built a mosque here. The first mosque in North Africa, the “Uqba ibn Naafi Mosque” (Djami’ol-Uqba ibn Naafi) or also known as the “Great Mosque of Kairouan” (Djami’ol-Qayrawan’al-Kabeer), is still one of the largest Islamic monuments in North Africa. (159) Built by the Arab general Uqba ibn Naafi at the founding of the city of Kairouan in 670, the mosque covers an area of over 9000 square meters. It is one of the oldest places of worship in the Islamic world and served as an example for all subsequent mosques in the Maghreb. (160) Two centuries later (9th century), extensive works carried out during the Aghlabid period gave the mosque its current appearance. (161)
Uqba ibn Naafi, who fulfilled his duty quickly and successfully, made the newly founded city his base of action and began to raid the Byzantines on the coast and the Berbers in the interior. However, upon the death of the Egyptian Governor Muawiyah bin Houdeydj bin Djafna as-Sakouni al-Kindi (? – 672) in 672, Uqba ibn Naafi was dismissed from his post in 674, and even the city of Kairouan was abandoned. The new governor, Abu Mohadjir Dinar al-Ansari (? – 683), cooperated with the Berber tribes and devoted all his strength to the fight against Byzantium. (162)
Uqba ibn Naafi’s successor, Abu Mohadjir Dinar’s successive and repeated attacks on villages in the Lower Numidian agricultural valleys, eventually forced the uncoordinated Numidian tribes into a modus vivendi through the Altava King Aksil (? – 688), or Kusaila as the Arabs called him, a Numidian leader transformed into a large Christian confederation. forced to create. (163) Aksil (Kusaila), who lived in Tlemcen, became a Muslim along with his entourage and moved his headquarters to Takirwan near Kairouan. (164) Abu Mohadjir successfully advanced into what is now Eastern Algeria, incorporating the Altava Kingdom and the Ewrebe tribe, both ruled by Aksil (Kusaila), into his Islamic sphere of influence. (165)
Meanwhile, Uqba ibn Naafi came from Egypt to Damascus and complained to Caliph Muawiyah, but since the siege of Constantinopolis (today’s Istanbul) continued with all its intensity, Muawiyah could not send Uqba to North Africa with new forces. While these events were taking place, Caliph Muawiyah died in 680. His son Yazid bin Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan (646 – 83), who succeeded him, assigned Uqba ibn Naafi to the conquest of North Africa again in 681. (166)
Uqba ibn Naafi, who returned to Egypt in 682, had Abu Mohadjir Dinar and Aksil (Kusaila) chained. First, he took the abandoned Kairouan – which he founded – and fortified it. He advanced from Kairouan towards the Central Maghreb and defeated the Berber and Byzantine forces he encountered in Zab and Tahert. (167) He then moved westward. Proceeding towards the Atlantic Ocean, it entered the Draa River Valley and the Sus region, today known as Morocco. (168) Later, he crossed the Atlas Mountains and reached Tangier, located in the northwest of today”s Moroccan territory, on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean and the Strait of Gibraltar. From here he turned south and marched against the Great Atlas and Sus Berbers, who posed a great danger to Muslims. After subjugating them, he dominated all the Berbers, especially the Masmuda and Lamtuna tribes in the area up to the ocean in the west and the Anti Atlas in the south. (169)
Spanish historian Luis García de Valdeavellano y Arcimís (1904 – 85) records the following regarding this process: “Arab chieftains had greatly expanded their African domination in their invasions against the Byzantines and Berbers, and as early as 682 Uqba had reached the Atlantic coast. However, he could not occupy Tangier because he had to return. He was returned to the Atlas Mountains by a man known in history and legend as Count Julian.” (170)
Uqba was far away from Kairouan, which was his base of operation during these invasion raids. His forces were not strong enough to keep the countries they occupied under submission. English historian Edward Gibbon (1737 – 94) writes: “Uqba, this Muhammadan Alexander, sighing for new worlds, could not preserve his last conquests. He was recalled from the Atlantic coast by the universal revolt of the Byzantines and native Africans against the Muslim occupation.” (171)
While Uqba ibn Naafi was on campaign, the King of Altava, Aksil (Kusaila), whom he had chained, managed to escape from the dungeon and returned to his hometown and took action against Uqba. Realizing the danger, albeit late, Uqae decided to divide his army into parts and return to Kairouan. However, he did not follow the coastal route but the desert route to the south. Aksil (Kusaila), who was preparing to attack Uqba, was waiting for his way. Uqba encountered the forces of Aksil (Kusaila) in Tahudah, located near Biskirah in today’s Algerian territory. In the encounter that took place in this region in 683, the Berber king Aksil (Kusaila) brutally killed Uqba ibn Naafi, the commander of the Arab occupation forces who had chained him, and took his revenge. After Uqba’s death, the Arab armies withdrew from Kairouan, which Aksil (Kusaila) took as the capital. (172)
Meanwhile, a new civil war was raging between rival forces of the Umayyad monarchy in Arabia and Syria. This resulted in the emergence of a series of four caliphs between the death of the Umayyad Caliph Muawiyah in 680 and the accession of Abdolmalik bin Marwan bin Hakem (647 – 705) in 685. The strife only ended with the death of the rebel leader in 692. (173)
The murder of Uqba ibn Naafi and the power struggles that started between the Umayyad dynasty in the east left North Africa alone with its fate. The Berber-Byzantine alliance forced the Arabs to retreat to the Egyptian border, and the coastal areas were taken over by Byzantium and the inner parts were taken over by the Berbers. Having captured Kairouan, Aksil (Kusaila) began to gather the Berber tribes in the Awras region around him. Egyptian Governor Abdolaziz bin Marwan bin Hakem (? – 705)asked for help from his brother, the Umayyad Caliph Abdolmalik bin Marwan bin Hakem. The Caliph sent an army under the command of Zohayr bin Qays al-Balawi (? – 688) to Egypt. Zohayr, who moved towards Tunisia via Berka, defeated the Berber-Byzantine forces under the command of Aksil (Kusaila) near Kairouan in 688. Aksil (Kusaila) also lost her life on the battlefield. Kairouan fell into the hands of Muslim Arabs again. (174)
After this success, Zohayr started to move west in order to recapture the lost lands. However, he had to turn back due to the possibility of being surrounded from behind by Byzantine forces. Byzantine Emperor Justinian II (669 – 711) sent a fleet from Constantinopolis (today’s Istanbul) to regain control of the situation in North Africa. In the war with the Byzantine forces, which also received reinforcements from Sicily, the Muslim Arabs were defeated and Zohayr bin Qays was killed. (175)
This incident caused an enlightenment among the Berbers that this conflict was not only against Byzantium. (176)
This last defeat suffered by the Muslim Arabs mobilized the Berbers again. Berber tribes in the Aurès region gathered around a female leader. Berber Queen Dihya (? – 701), or Kahina as the Arabs called her, led the local resistance against the occupation of the Maghreb by Muslims. For five years, between 695 and 700, he ruled a free Berber state from the Aurès Mountains to the Gadames Oasis, but was eventually slain in battle near the Well of Bir al-Kahina in Aurès, which still bears his name. (177)
In 693, Umayyad Caliph Abdolmalik bin Marwan sent an army of 40,000 men under the command of Hasan ibn Nouman al-Ghassani (? – 703) to Cyrenaica and Tripoli (today’s Libya) to eliminate the Byzantine threat to the Arab advance in North Africa. This was the first time such a large army was sent from the center. They encountered no resistance until they reached Tunisia. Hasan ibn Nouman’s first target was Byzantine-held Carthage (today’s Tunisia). The Islamic navy was also participating in this expedition. The city surrendered without much resistance. Here they captured Carthage and defeated the Byzantines and Berbers near Bizerte. (178)
Hasan ibn Nouman, who marched on the Berber Queen Dihya (Kahina) after the capture of Carthage, lost the war against the Berbers and retreated. The city fell into Byzantine hands again. After receiving the reinforcements he requested from the Umayyad Caliph Abdolmalik bin Marwan, Hasan ibn Nouman captured Carthage and other cities that had fallen into the hands of Byzantium. In 698 the Arabs captured Carthage and completed the conquest of the eastern Berber coast. However, anticipating Byzantine reconquest attempts, they decided to destroy it. Walls were destroyed, agricultural lands were plundered, aqueducts and ports were rendered unusable. Instead, they established their base in Tunisia, which was greatly expanded; but Kairouan remained the governor’s capital until the late 9th century. (179)
By 698, the Arabs had captured most of North Africa from the Byzantines. The region was divided into three provinces: Egypt, with its governor in Fustat (present-day Cairo), and the Maghreb, with its governor in Kairouan and governor in Ifriqiya and Tangier, which included Libya and Mauritania, as well as the territory of present-day Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.
After this, it was the turn of the Berbers under the rule of Queen Dihya (Kahina). Dihya (Kahina) replaced Aksil (Kusayla) as war leader of the Berber tribes in 688 and opposed the “rapist Arab Islamic armies of the Umayyad dynasty”. Hasan ibn Nouman al-Ghassani (? – 703), the Umayyad Governor of Ifriqiya, marched from Egypt and captured the great city of Byzantium, Carthage, and other cities. Looking for another enemy to defeat, he was told that the most powerful ruler in North Africa was Kahina (Dihya), the “Queen of the Berbers”, and upon hearing this, he marched on Numidia. In 698, the armies met at the Battle of Meskiana in Algeria, near Meskiana in today’s Oum El Bouaghi province. (180)
While Muslims captured the coastal regions without any problems, Berber resistance began as Muslims advanced towards the interior regions. Dihya (Kahina) adopted the “scorched earth” strategy and succeeded in forcing the Muslims to withdraw from Ifriqiya after the victory at Nin. After this victory at the latest, Dihya (Kahina) was recognized as a “military leader” and “queen” by the Berbers. Dihya (Kahina) defeated Hasan ibn Nouman, the Umayyad Governor of Ifriqiya, so strongly that Hasan fled Ifriqiya and hid in Cyrenaica (Libya) for four or five years. Realizing that the enemy was too strong and he had to turn back, he was said to have begun a scorched earth campaign that had little effect on the mountain and desert tribes, but lost significant support from the settled oasis inhabitants. Rather than discouraging the Arab armies, his desperate decision hastened defeat. (181)
It is said that some Muslim prisoners were released by Dihya (Kahina). Khalid bin Jazid al-Qaisi (? – ?), probably a relative of Hasan ibn Nouman, was adopted by Dihya (Kahina) as the third son. But this adoption is said to have been theirs downfall, because according to some accounts, she was betrayed by this adopted son at a time of domestic political weakness: The insurgent Berbers were tired of sacrificing everything for victory; according to Ibn Khaldun, it is said that she also ruled in a despotic manner. (182)
Adopting a relative of the arch-enemy you’re fighting against is admittedly not a wise move, even stupid. It is unknown how and why an intelligent and visionary woman like Dihya (Kahina) made such a mistake.
Hasan ibn Nouman, the Umayyad Governor of Ifriqiya, eventually returned and contacted the officer Khalid bin Jazid al-Qaisi, who was captured and adopted by Dihya (Kahina), and with his help defeated Dihya (Kahina) in the Battle of Tabarka, which took place in 701 in a region close to the borders of Algeria in present-day Tunisia. (183)
Dihya (Kahina) led the local resistance against the occupation of the Maghreb by Muslims. For five years, between 695 and 700, he ruled a free Berber state from the Aurès Mountains to the Gadames Oasis, but was eventually slain in battle near the Well of Bir al-Kahina in Aurès, which still bears his name. (184)
Supporters of the Berber opposition against Dihya (Kahina) then welcomed and celebrated the Arab invaders as “liberators”. (185)
The circumstances of her death cannot be determined with certainty. Some claim that she died in battle but also committed suicide by poisoning herself to avoid capture. (186) Her biological sons either died with her or became Muslims to save his life.
According to some rumors, Dihya (Kahina) died with a sword in her hand while fighting the invading Arabs. Other sources say that she committed suicide by drinking poison to avoid being captured by the enemy. (187) According to Ibn Khaldun, she was 127 years old when she died. (188) This is clearly some of the many legends surrounding her. In both cases, she was decapitated and hir head was sent to the Umayyad Caliph in Damascus as proof of hir death. (189)
According to many historians, his sons Bagaj and Khentchla converted to Islam (190) and led the Berber army to Iberia.
With the death of Dihya (Kahina), the common resistance of the Berbers ended. As you know, from the following centuries until today, there have been other ethnic conflicts between Berbers and Arabs under the banner of Islam (that is, even though both sides are Muslims).
Hasan ibn Nouman then retook Carthage from the Byzantines, who had recaptured it when they withdrew from Tunisia. Nearby, he founded the city of Tunis, today the capital of the country of Tunisia, and used it as a base for the Umayyad navy in the Mediterranean. The Byzantines were forced to abandon the Maghreb and retreat to the Mediterranean islands. However, in 705, he was replaced by Abu Abdurrahman Mousa bin Nousayr bin Abdurrahman Zayd al-Bakri al-Lakhmi (640 – 716), who was under the protection of the then governor of Egypt, Abdolaziz bin Marwan. Mousa bin Nousayr attacked what is now Morocco, captured Tangier and advanced to the Sous River and the Tafilalt Oasis in a three-year campaign. (191)
Successful general Mousa bin Nousayr was appointed governor of Ifriqiya. He was given the responsibility of suppressing other Berber rebellions and “Islamizing” the native population. His armies brutally suppressed Berbers of various religions who fought against the advancing Muslim Arabs. Islamic armies committed a terrible massacre against the Berber people. The invasions, which the Arabs called “conquests”, reached the shores of the Atlantic Ocean in 708. He was known for the large number of mawlas he collected, consisting of Berbers and people from other regions who converted to Islam at the point of the sword. Mousa bin Nousayr and his two sons defeated the rebels and enslaved 300,000 people captured in the war. The Caliph’s share was 60,000 slaves. The Caliph sold them into slavery and the proceeds went to the treasury of the Islamic state. Additionally, 30,000 prisoners were forcibly conscripted into the army. (192)
Philip Khuri Hitti (1886 – 1978), an American historian of Lebanese origin, professor of Arab history, Middle Eastern history and Islamic history, and expert on Semitic languages, claimed that figures such as 300,000 slaves were exaggerated. (193) However, this historical fact has been confirmed by Indian historian Kishori Saran Lal (1920 – 2002) with his evidence and documents. (194)
Mousa also had to deal with the Byzantine navy, which was still fighting against Muslim invasions. Thus, he established a navy of his own, and this navy continued to conquer islands such as Ibiza (Eivissa), Mallorca and Menorca, which belong to today’s Balearic Archipelago of Spain. His forces advanced towards the Maghreb and captured Algeria in 700.
The evils committed by the Arab Islamic armies in North Africa and especially the oppression they inflicted on the local Berber people, the Arab nationalist policies and racist practices followed by Muslims in the name of “Religion”, in the name of “Allah”, are discussed in the “İslam Ansiklopedisi” (Encyclopedia of Islam) prepared and published by the official Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (Presidency of Religious Affairs) in Turkey. It was confessed in person and mentioned without going into too much detail. According to the “Encyclopedia of Islam”, due to the Arabist policy followed by the Umayyad dynasty, the jizy was collected from non-Arab elements even if they were Muslims, they were not allowed to have a say in the state administration and they were treated as second-class subjects, which led to various discontent among the Berbers against the Umayyad dynasty and paved the way for rebellions to break out. (195)
The invasion of North Africa by Arab Islamic armies began in 647 and ended in 709. By 709, all of North Africa was under the control of the Arab caliphate. The only possible exception was the Ceuta in the “African Pillar of Hercules”. (196)
Although North Africa was under the control of the Islamic Caliphate, there were still segments of the population that resisted the spread of Islam. The racist Umayyad mentality and Muslim Arabs thought that the Berber people were an “inferior race”. Even if a Berber was a Muslim, since they were not Arabs, they were allowed to join the Islamic army by receiving less salary than an Arab would receive. This caused great dissatisfaction among the Berbers. (197) So much so that this dissatisfaction led to the death of Yazid bin Abu Muslim Dinar as-Sakafi (? – 721), the Arab governor of the Maghreb, at the hands of one of his bodyguards after he ordered them to tattoo his name on their arms to signify his ownership. (198)
The Berber kingdoms were eventually suppressed and eliminated by Arab invasions in the 7th and 8th centuries. This began the process of cultural and linguistic assimilation known as “Arabization” that affected the Berber population. “Arabization” involved the spread of the Arabic language and Arab culture among the Berbers; This led to the adoption of Arabic as the “native language” and the conversion to Islam. Arab migrations to the Maghreb, especially from the 7th century to the 17th century, accelerated this process. (199)
By 711, Umayyad forces, aided by the Berber conversion to Islam, had conquered all of North Africa. The spread of Islam among the Berbers did not guarantee their support for the Arab-dominated Islamic Caliphate, due to the racist and discriminatory attitude of the Muslim Arabs. The ruling Arabs alienated the Berbers from their true self by imposing heavy taxes on them, treating their converts as second-class Muslims, and worst of all, by enslaving them. (200)
Just like they did in Kurdistan, Anatolia, Iran, the Caucasus before that, and in the Indian Subcontinent, Turkestan and the Balkans after that.
– will continue –
FOOTNOTES:
(155): İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 5, Hakkı Dursun Yıldız, article “Berberîler”, p. 480, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992
(156): Northern Africa, History Guild, https://historyguild.org/northern-africa/
(157): Lambert M. Surhone – Mariam T. Tennoe – Susan F. Henssonow, Uqba Ibn Nafi, Betascript Publishing, Mauritius 2011 / Barry Cunliffe, By Steppe, Desert and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia, p. 363, Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York 2015
(158): İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 5, Hakkı Dursun Yıldız, article “Berberîler”, p. 480, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992
(159): Wikipedya (Arabic), article “جامع عقبة بن نافع”, https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9_%D8%B9%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%86_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B9 / Wikipedia (English), article “Great Mosque of Kairouan”, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan / Wikipedia (German), article “Hauptmoschee von Kairouan”, https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hauptmoschee_von_Kairouan / Vikipedi (Turkish), article “Kayrevan Ulu Camii”, https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kayrevan_Ulu_Camii
(160): Great Mosque of Kairouan, Discover Islamic Art, https://web.archive.org/web/20130407201059/http://www.discoverislamicart.org/pc_item.php?id=monument%3BISL%3Btn%3BMon01%3B2%3Ben
(161): M’hamed Hassine Fantar, De Carthage à Kairouan: 2000 Ans d’Art et d’Histoire en Tunisie, p. 23, Édition Agence Française d’Action Artistique, Paris 1982
(162): İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 5, Hakkı Dursun Yıldız, article “Berberîler”, p. 480, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992
(163): Ibn Warraq, Why I am not a Muslim, Prometheus Books, New York 2003
(164): Gary Paul Nabhan, Cumin, Camels and Caravans: A Spice Odyssey, p. 128, University of California Press, London & Berkeley & Los Angeles 2014
(165): Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, p. 29 – 30, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge & New York & Melbourne 1987
(166): İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 5, Hakkı Dursun Yıldız, article “Berberîler”, p. 480, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992
(167): ibid
(168): Muhammad al-Fasi – Ivan Hrbek, General History of Africa, volume 3, H. Monès, chapter “The Concuquest of North Africa and Berber Resistance”, p. 236, Heinemann Educational Publishers, Paris & Oxford & Portsmouth & Ibadan & Gaborene 1998
(169): İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 5, Hakkı Dursun Yıldız, article “Berberîler”, p. 480, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992
(170): Michael Ugarte, Trilogy of Treason: An Intertextual Study of Juan Goytisolo, University of Missouri Press, Columbia 1982
(171): Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 51: “The Conquest Of Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa and Spain, by the Arabs or Saracens – Empire of the Caliphs, or Successors of Mahomet – State of the Christians & Co., Under Their Government”, Strahan & Cadell Publishing, London 1789
(172): Muhammad al-Fasi – Ivan Hrbek, General History of Africa, volume 3, H. Monès, chapter “The Concuquest of North Africa and Berber Resistance”, p. 236, Heinemann Educational Publishers, Paris & Oxford & Portsmouth & Ibadan & Gaborene 1998
(173): All sources about the Umayyads
(174): Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chapter 51: “The Conquest Of Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa and Spain, by the Arabs or Saracens – Empire of the Caliphs, or Successors of Mahomet – State of the Christians & Co., Under Their Government”, Strahan & Cadell Publishing, London 1789 / Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, p. 30, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge & New York & Melbourne 1987 / İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 5, Hakkı Dursun Yıldız, article “Berberîler”, p. 480, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992 / Muhammad al-Fasi – Ivan Hrbek, General History of Africa, volume 3, H. Monès, chapter “The Concuquest of North Africa and Berber Resistance”, p. 236, Heinemann Educational Publishers, Paris & Oxford & Portsmouth & Ibadan & Gaborene 1998
(175): ibid / ibid / ibid / ibid
(176): H. Monès, ibid
(177): Charles André Julien – Roger Le Tourneau, Histoire de L’Afrique du Nord, p. 13, Édition Praeger, New York 1970
(178): Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, p. 30 – 31, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge & New York & Melbourne 1987
(179): Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Historic Cities of the Islamic World, p. 536, Brill Academic Press, Leiden 2007
(180): Mohamed Talbi, Un Nouveau Fragment de l’Histoire de l’Occident Musulman (62 – 196 / 682 – 812): L’Épopée d’al Kahina, volume 19, p. 19 – 52, Cahiers de Tunisie, Tunis 1971 / Philippe Sénac – Patrice Cressier, Histoire du Maghreb Médiéval: VIIe-XIe Siècle, p. 111, Édition Armand Colin, Paris 2012
(181): Encyclopédie Berbère, volume 27, Yves Modéran, article “Kahena”, p. 4102 – 4111, Édition Édisud, Aix-en-Provence 2005 / Mohamed Talbi, ibid
(182): Zeit der Heldinnen: Lebensbilder Außergewöhnlicher Jüdischer Frauen, Gerda Hoffer, “Dahiya Cahena”, p. 13 – 25, Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag, Munich 1999
(183): Mohamed Talbi, Un Nouveau Fragment de l’Histoire de l’Occident Musulman (62 – 196 / 682 – 812): L’Épopée d’al Kahina, volume 19, p. 19 – 52, Cahiers de Tunisie, Tunis 1971 / Encyclopédie Berbère, volume 27, Yves Modéran, article “Kahena”, p. 4102 – 4111, Édition Édisud, Aix-en-Provence 2005
(184): Charles André Julien – Roger Le Tourneau, Histoire de L’Afrique du Nord, p. 13, Édition Praeger, New York 1970
(185): Kahina: Die Unerschrockene Berberkönigin, Afrika-Junior, https://www.afrika-junior.de/inhalt/wissen/afrikanische-persoenlichkeiten/kahina-die-unerschrockene-berberkoenigin.html
(186): Ancient History Encyclopedia, Joshua J. Mark, article “Kahina”, https://www.worldhistory.org/Kahina/#google_vignette
(187): Encyclopédie Berbère, volume 27, Yves Modéran, article “Kahena”, p. 4102 – 4111, Édition Édisud, Aix-en-Provence 2005
(188): Ibn Khaldun, Kitab’al-Iber wa Diwan’al-Mubtadā wa’l-Khabar fi Ayyam’il-Arab wa’l- Adjam wa’l-Berber waman Âsharahoum min Zawi’s-Soltan’il-Akbar, Algiers 1851
(189): Candice Goucher, Women Who Changed the World: Their Lives, Challenges and Accomplishments Through History, ABC-CLIO Publishing, Santa Barbara 2022
(190): Description of 100 Francs 1940, Algeria, https://notescollector.eu/pages/en/notes.php?noteId=1284
(191): Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, p. 31 – 32, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge & New York & Melbourne 1987
(192): Daniel Pipes, Slave Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System, p. 124, Yale University Press, London & New Haven 1981 / Paul B. Fenton – David G. Littman, Exile in the Maghreb: Jews under Islam, Sources and Documents, 997 – 1912, p. 1, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Madison & Teaneck 2016
(193): Philip Khuri Hitti, The Arabs: A Short History, p. 98 – 99, Regnery Publishing, Washington D. C. 1996
(194): Kishori Saran Lal, Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India, p. 103, Aditya Prakashan Publishing, New Delhi 1999
(195): İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 5, Hakkı Dursun Yıldız, article “Berberîler”, p. 481, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992
(196): Charles Diehl, L’Afrique Byzantine: Histoire de la Domination Byzantine en Afrique (533 – 709), p. 589, Édition Leroux, Paris 1896 / Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Historic Cities of the Islamic World, p. 536, Brill Academic Press, Leiden 2007
(197): Abd al-Wahid Dhannun Taha, The Muslim Conquest and Settlement of North Africa and Spain, p. 198, Routledge Publishing, London & New York 1989
(198): Timothy Joseph Stapleton, A Military History of Africa, p. 22, ABC-CLIO Publishing, Santa Barbara 2013
(199): Clive Holes, Arabic Historical Dialectology: Linguistic and Sociolinguistic Approaches, p. 42, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2018
(200): Daniel Pipes, Slave Soldiers and Islam: The Genesis of a Military System, p. 124, Yale University Press, London & New Haven 1981 / Paul B. Fenton – David G. Littman, Exile in the Maghreb: Jews under Islam, Sources and Documents, 997 – 1912, p. 1, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Madison & Teaneck 2016
SEDİYANİ HABER
27 JUNE 2024
