An Islamic Civilization in Europe: Andalusia – 8
■ Ibrahim Sediyani
– continued from last chapter –
■ CONQUEST OF ANDALUSIA: DID TARIK IBN ZIYAD REALLY BURN THE SHIPS?
… and finally those great days that will change the course of history come. Tariq ibn Ziyad al- Layti (670 – 720) and the army under his command begin their campaign to conquer Andalusia.
Date, April 711.
The 7000-strong Berber army under the command of the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad set out for the rock of Gibraltar (Djabal-i Tariq), which today bears the name of Tariq ibn Ziyad. The Berber army under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and conquered Spanish lands. With the support of Julián (? – ?), the Byzantine Governor of Septe (Ceuta; at the time Septem), they crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from Septe.
According to the sources, the Visigothic King Rodrigo (688 – 712), who received news that Tariq ibn Ziyad would attack Iberia (Spain) with an army of 7000 to avenge Julián’s daughter Florinda la Cava (? – ?), gathered an army of 100,000 to counter the threat of the Muslims (Berbers) (437), but the real number may be much lower (438).
An army of 100,000 against an army of 7000!… It seems that Rodrigo’s victory is certain and our Tariq has no chance! But the image is misleading. Because there is something Rodrigo never calculated or realized: Most of the soldiers and even commanders in the army of 100,000 that Rodrigo prepared were led by the sons of his opponent Wittiza, whom Rodrigo had brutally dethroned, and they were loyal to them. (439) In other words, most of the soldiers and commanders in Rodrigo’s army were actually in favor of the victory of the “enemy” Tariq ibn Ziyad army, and when the war began, they would fight not to win, but to lose.
Meanwhile, the Visigothic Kingdom, which ruled in Spain, was faced with various problems caused by throne struggles, conflicts within society, and the policy of forcibly “Christianizing” the Jews. (440)
The army of the Visigothic King Rodrigo was almost 15 times stronger than the army of the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad (100,000 against 7000). However, Tariq ibn Ziyad and the “Islamic army” under his command had the advantage. Because there were very important elements in Spain (the Visigothic Kingdom) that would help Tariq ibn Ziyad (i.e. “betray the country” in modern terms).
In the conquest of Andalusia, the important elements that would help Tariq ibn Ziyad (in modern terms, “betray the country”) in Spain (Visigothic Kingdom) were as follows:
1 – Berbers loyal to Julián, the Governor of Septe, who wanted to avenge his daughter Florinda who was raped and who personally initiated this expedition for this very reason
2 – Jews who were forcibly “Christianized” by the Visigothic Kingdom and were subjected to all kinds of oppression and persecution in Spanish lands (NOTE: The reasons why Jews had all kinds of rights and freedoms during the time of the Islamic Civilization of Andalusia and lived in peace and tranquility under Islamic rule should also be sought here)
3 – Visigoths loyal to Wittiza (687 – 710), who was an opponent of the Visigothic King Rodrigo
4 – Commanders and soldiers within the Visigothic army who were not led by King Rodrigo but by the sons of his opponent Wittiza and were loyal to them (441)
The conquest of Andalusia in 711, one of the greatest conquests in history, was not a success achieved by Muslims (Berber raiders led by a Kurdish commander) alone. Official Islamic history does not want to mention this and carefully avoids mentioning it anyway, but this was a victory achieved through the cooperation of Muslims, Jews and the “traitors” Visigoths in Spain. First of all, as a historical fact, we must first acknowledge this.
Some sources state that Tariq ibn Ziyad had a woman with him on all his expeditions and that when they crossed to Gibraltar by ship in 711 and conquered Spain, Tariq was accompanied by a woman named Ūmmū Hakim. However, the nature of their relationship remains unclear; whether this woman named Ūmmū Hakim is Tariq ibn Ziyad’s wife, sister or lover is unknown. (442)
Strange information. Who is this Ūmmū Hakim? Unknown…
At first, it may be thought that she was Tariq’s wife, but doubts still arise in people’s minds. Because during that period, commanders would not take their families, wives, or sisters with them when they went on such expeditions. They would never take them on such a dangerous expedition, such as a “suicide attempt”, with a small army challenging the whole of Europe.
Since the woman’s name is Ūmmū Hakim, it means that this woman is a mother. She has a child named Hakim. If she is Tariq’s wife, then the couple has a child named Hakim. However, if the woman is a widow, then she could be Tariq’s lover.
According to the same sources, this woman was a slave in Algeria. Tariq took she with him (most likely kidnapped she) when he went on expeditions. (443) So it seems like they ran away together. If so, the woman could be of the same ethnic origin as him (Kurd); indeed, Tariq was a slave until a few years before him, then he was freed. The woman could be a slave who has not yet been freed.
It is a very strange situation and a truly mysterious event.
Did our Tariq, when he set out on a journey, think “there is no turning back for me anyway” and take the opportunity to kidnap the woman he loved and go on the journey?
Don’t say it can’t be done; the Kurds’ actions are unpredictable…
The Algerian historian and biographer Shehabaddin abu Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Maqqari al-Tilmisani (1577 – 1632), who lived a few centuries after them and is the author of the encyclopedic work “Nafh’ut-Teb min Ghushn’il-Andalus’ir-Ratib wa Zikru Waziriha Lisan’id-Din Ibn-il-Khatib” on Andalusian culture and civilization, in his work, tells a very interesting and striking legend, and this legend that Ahmad al-Maqqari tells is believed as a “historical fact” all over the world, especially among Muslims. The incident narrated is as follows:
After Tariq ibn Ziyad and the Berber army under his command landed in Gibraltar, that is, after they crossed over to the Spanish side, as soon as Tariq ibn Ziyad set foot on land, he had the ships burned so that the soldiers in his army would not think of returning. When he did this, his soldiers were greatly shocked and terrified, and their commander said to Tariq:
“What have you done? What madness you have done! How will we return now?”
Thereupon, Tariq ibn Ziyad gave the following famous speech to the soldiers under his command:
“Oh my warriors! Where can you flee?
Behind you is the sea, before you is the enemy. All that remains is hope for courage and determination.
Remember that you are luckier than the orphan sitting at the table of the miserly master! Your enemy stands before you, protected by an innumerable army. They are many men, but your only resource is your own swords!
Do not believe that I am trying to provoke you to face the dangers that I refuse to share with you. During the attack, I will be with you on the front where the chances of survival are less.” (444)
This is the most famous anecdote about the conquest of Andalusia, and today Muslims believe this story as an absolute historical fact.
So is this incident real? Did Tariq ibn Ziyad really burn the ships?
First of all, we need to know that the person who first wrote this story was the Algerian historian and biographer Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Maqqari, who lived in the 16th and 17th centuries. That is, 800 years after the conquest of Andalusia. He tells this in his encyclopedic work called “Nafh’ut-Teb min Ghushn’il-Andalus’ir-Ratib wa Zikru Waziriha Lisan’id-Din Ibn-il-Khatib”. And the source it is based on is the work of the famous Andalusian Berber traveler, geographer and cartographer Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Idris Sharif al-Idrisi (1100 – 66), who lived in the 12th century, called “Nūzhat’ul-Mūshtaq fi Ikhtiraq’il-Āfaq”. That is, 400 years after the conquest of Andalusia.
Sharif al-Idrisi narrates the speech Tariq ibn Ziyad gave to his soldiers while burning the ships exactly as follows:
“O people! Where is the escape?
The sea is behind you, the enemy is before you, and by God you have nothing but honesty and patience.
And know that you are more lost on this island than the orphans at the table of your enemy. He has met you with his army and his weapons, his provision is abundant, you have no burden except your swords, you have no burden except the provision you have taken from the hands of your enemy, and if your days of poverty are prolonged, you will not be able to do it. If you accomplish a task for yourself, your strength will go away and hearts will receive its reward.
He was horrified by your insolence towards you; therefore, guard yourselves against the disappointment of this result of your command to oppose this tyrant, for he has thrown him into his fortified city, and if you allow yourself, it is possible to take advantage of the opportunity here.
I have not warned you about what I am about to say, nor have I led you to a plan that will cheapen the pleasures of the soul, unless I start from myself. You will enjoy luxury and the most delicious for a long time, so do not prefer yourself to me, because your share is better than mine.” (445)
This incident, narrated by the famous Andalusian Berber traveler, geographer and cartographer Idrisi, is also narrated as it is by the world-famous Kurdish historian, jurist, writer and poet Ibn Khallikan or with his full name Shamsaddin abu Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Abubaker ibn Khallikan al-Barmaki al-Arbili (1211 – 82), who lived a hundred years after him. (446)
However, the truth of this incident is debatable. It is doubtful that Tariq ibn Ziyad actually burned the ships. First of all, it is necessary to take this into consideration: Whether it is the Andalusian Berber traveler, geographer and cartographer Sharif al-Idrisi who lived in the 12th century, or the Kurdish historian, jurist, writer and poet Ibn Khallikan who lived in the 13th century, or the Algerian historian and biographer Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Maqqari who lived in the 16th and 17th centuries, all of these are figures who lived centuries after the conquest of Andalusia in the 8th century, that is, after Tariq ibn Ziyad, and there is no such information in any written source or historical document before them.
Therefore, the incident of Tariq ibn Ziyad burning the ships in order to prevent the army under his command from returning and to encourage them to make a permanent conquest is controversial and even has a very low probability of being true. While there are those who accept that this happened, there are also those who claim that it is a fabrication. However, it has also been said that not all of the ships were burned, but a few of them symbolically. (447)
It seems that the famous “burning the ships” incident regarding the conquest of Andalusia does not reflect the truth. The fact that Tariq ibn Ziyad had the ships burned is a complete myth and a fabricated story.
When you already know this history, that is, when you are familiar with the subject, it becomes difficult to believe this story. As for the reason: First of all, Tariq ibn Ziyad and his soldiers do not go from Morocco to Spain on their own ships; on the contrary, they land in Gibraltar on ships sent by the Governor of Septe. In other words, they board ships that go to Morocco to pick them up from Spain and return to Spain on those ships, landing in Gibraltar.
First: Those ships had already gone from here (Spain) and brought them from there (Morocco). In other words, the ships already belong to the place they went to, not the place they came from. While they were in Gibraltar, those ships are currently in their own homeland. Therefore, those ships have no direct relation to the “return” of those warriors.
Second: Those ships are not Tariq ibn Ziyad’s, but the ships of Julián, the Governor of Septe. How could Tariq burn property that was not under his control? He has no authority to burn someone else’s ships. Moreover, those ships were assigned to help them, and why would Tariq behave in such an irresponsible and impudent manner in response to this favor?
Think about it: The governor sends dozens of ships to help you, you get on those ships, reach your destination, and burn those ships as soon as you set foot on land. Why? “I wanted to instill courage in my own soldiers; I had to get them out of their minds about going back. For this reason.” Does that make sense?
In conclusion, the narration that Tariq ibn Ziyad burned the ships was not mentioned in any Andalusian historical source until Sharif al-Idrisi, who lived in the 12th century. When the reasons we have stated above are taken into consideration, this indicates the weakness of this narration.
In my opinion, the real purpose of this “burning the ships” story is to conceal the extraordinary help provided by the regime opponents of the Spanish side, the Christians, and the oppressed part of the country, the Jews, in the conquest of Andalusia. After all, if it were not for these regime opponents on the Spanish side, especially the Jews, the Muslims would never have conquered Andalusia. In fact, let alone conquering it, they would not have even been able to land in Gibraltar, that is, they would not have even set foot on Spanish soil.
But, Islamic historians and Muslim religious education are going to agitate about a “miraculous conquest that took place with angels descending from the sky” and the audience will weep bitterly and “renew their faith”, they are just making these up.
This is not only fraudulent, but also foolish. Why? For this reason: In the conquest of Andalusia by Muslims, does the fact that Christians and Jews who were under oppression on the Spanish side helped Muslims cast a shadow over this “Islamic conquest” movement, or on the contrary, does it elevate this conquest to a more meaningful and justified level? Of course the latter. But it seems that the “ideological” and “religious” obsession prevents us from comprehending even this much.
While doing this study in your hands, I realized the following:
90% of what we are told about the conquest of Andalusia is a lie!
So why do Islamic historians do this?
However, if it were told correctly and as it was, this conquest would be much more honorable.
But that is not their concern. Their concern is to ideologize and religionize the event.
It would not be wrong to think that the story of burning the ships was inspired by stories that existed before in history. However, this story continues to exist as a motivational tool that has awakened and continues to awaken the excitement of conquest in the minds and hearts of the Islamic Ummah. It is used as a motivational allegory, especially to instill in Muslim youth the consciousness that when it comes to their own cause and ideals, they can leave everything behind and burn their ships without blinking an eye, just like Tariq ibn Ziyad and his companions. (448)
Dear readers; you remember Sharif al-Idrisi, right? In this book, in the section titled “Was Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Conqueror of Andalusia, whose Arab or Berber Status has been Debated for a Thousand Years, Actually a Kurd?” where we researched the family origins and ethnic affiliation of the conqueror of Andalusia, Tariq ibn Ziyad, we mentioned him for a very important reason.
The first person to put forward the false claim that Tariq ibn Ziyad, the conqueror of Andalusia, who was originally a Kurd from the city of Hamadan in Iran, a Kurd son of a Kurd, was a Berber was this same person, Sharif al-Idrisi. That is, 400 years after Tariq ibn Ziyad. Before him and before the 12th century, there is no record, not even a single written document, that Tariq ibn Ziyad was a Berber. (449)
The person who invented the legend that Tariq ibn Ziyad burned the ships after landing in Gibraltar is the same person, Sharif al-Idrisi.
May God have mercy on him abundantly; Sharif al-Idrisi is truly a very valuable scholar and his contributions to cartography and geography in particular are invaluable, he has broken new ground in the world. I saw the famous map he drew with my own eyes in the Andalusian Museum on the Spanish Island of Ibiza (Eivissa). (450) But I wish he had only done geography and never tried to be a historian. Despite my great respect and reverence for him, I must frankly state that what he wrote about Tariq ibn Ziyad is literally made up in his own mind because of my devotion to science and truth. And since he made up such a thing at the time, today the whole world believes it as a fact. How sad it is!
There was no scientific and technological advancement in the Middle Ages like there is today, of course. There were no computers, no internet, no television, no professional records and archives, and even no newspapers. What we call “science” or “knowledge” was an occupation in the hands of a certain group, and they wrote and drew whatever came to their minds, stories they made up, without citing any sources or evidence. The public, the people on the street, have no idea about what was being written or said.
But what happens then? The things they wrote and said, centuries later, today, become “history”, even “historical events”. Would you laugh or cry?
Because he made up such things in his time, Tariq ibn Ziyad, who was actually a Kurd, is known today as a Berber by the entire world. Because he made up such things in his time, today all Muslims believe that Tariq ibn Ziyad burned the ships after landing in Gibraltar.
Unfortunately, this is exactly the case, and it is a very sad and disturbing situation. It is especially frustrating for honest and virtuous people who believe in the truth and whose only concern is to know the truth.
Let us continue with the subject. Let us see what happened after the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad and the Berber warriors under his command landed in Gibraltar, that is, after they crossed to the Spanish side…
Tariq ibn Ziyad and his army crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, which separates the Mediterranean from the Atlantic Ocean, and landed at the beginning of the Iberian Peninsula, known today as Gibraltar, and after clashing with the Gothic garrison, took control of it. The Muslim Kurdish leader stayed at the foot of the mountain for a few days, during which time he organized his army and prepared a plan to conquer nearby castles and penetrate deep into Spain. He managed to conquer some castles and cities, including Cartagena and Algeciras. He moved west until he reached Khanda in southwestern Spain, cut by a famous valley of the Burbat River, and set up camp there. (451)
Tariq ibn Ziyad and his army, after landing in Gibraltar, advanced northwards from there. Tariq ibn Ziyad launched a military campaign against the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo, which controlled the former lands of Hispania. (452) At that time, the Visigothic King Rodrigo was taking action against the Basques who were rebelling in the Basque region in the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula. When he learned of the Muslim invasion, he quickly marched his armies and fought the Muslims at Arcos de la Frontera on July 19-26, 711. He fell here during the Battle of Río Guadalete, which ended in victory for the Berber Islamic army under the command of the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad. The Visigothic King Rodrigo was killed in this battle, opening the way for the Muslims to open up to all of Spain. Thus, Tariq ibn Ziyad and the Berbers took their revenge very violently for the Berber girl Florinda, who was raped in King Rodrigo’s palace. (453)
It took only three days or a week for the Berber warriors under the command of the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad to defeat the Visigothic army, which had enormous power, and to “send King Rodrigo to Hell” and avenge the rape of the Berber girl Florinda. (454) There was no longer a serious obstacle for the Muslims to conquer Spain.
According to the sources, at the hottest moment of the Battle of Río Guadalete, the soldiers loyal to Aguila II (? – 714), the son of King Rodrigo’s opponent Wittiza, suddenly left the Visigothic army. As they had previously agreed with Tariq ibn Ziyad, they changed sides and joined the Islamic army. These directly or indirectly caused Rodrigo’s defeat. Tariq ibn Ziyad completed this victory in a short time in Écija and finished off the Gothic nobles. (455)
As we have previously explained, most of the soldiers and even commanders in the 100,000-man army that Rodrigo prepared were led by the sons of his opponent Wittiza, whom Rodrigo had brutally dethroned, and were loyal to them. (456) In other words, most of the soldiers and commanders in Rodrigo’s army were actually in favor of the victory of the “enemy” Tariq ibn Ziyad army, and when the war began, they would fight not to win but to lose. And that is what they did.
The “Mozarabic Chronicle”, a collection of 95 chapters written in Latin in 754, just 43 years after the conquest of Spain, and also known as the “754 Chronicle” or “Spain Chronicle”, states that when the battle began, many of the inhabitants fled to the hills instead of defending their cities. All the soldiers in the army fled the battle, and a significant portion changed sides. The “Mozarabic Chronicle” states, “The entire Visigothic army that came with Rodrigo, with the hope of becoming king, fled.” (457) This is the only record of this battle during the period, and due to its lack of detail, later historians wrote their own history. The exact location of the battle is not known, but it was probably the Guadalete River (Río Guadalete).
According to the Andalusian Berber historian Ibn Qotiyya or with his full name Muhammad ibn Umar ibn Abdolazez ibn Ibrahim ibn Isa ibn Mazahem al-Ishbili (? – 977), in his work titled “Tarikh-i Iftitah’al-Andalūs” (History of the Conquest of Andalusia), the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad, who landed in Gibraltar with a total of 7000 warriors, had approximately 25,000 soldiers in his army during the Battle of Río Guadalete, where he defeated and killed the Visigothic King Rodrigo. In other words, Tariq’s army had increased three and a half times. These were soldiers who had escaped from the Visigothic army and joined Tariq, and also the Jews who had enthusiastically welcomed the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad when he set foot in Spain. There was a considerable number of Jewish warriors in Tariq ibn Ziyad’s army, and almost all of the Jews in Spain were with Tariq ibn Ziyad in this Islamic conquest movement. (458)
After Tariq ibn Ziyad and his Berber warriors defeated the Visigothic King Rodrigo with the help of local elements in the Battle of Río Guadalete, the Berber girl Florinda, who had been raped in Rodrigo’s palace, was avenged. After the victorious battle, Florinda’s father, Julian, the Governor of Septe, advised Tariq ibn Ziyad to divide his army and divide it into different units in order to conquer the cities of Spain. Tariq ibn Ziyad divided his army into four divisions and under the command of Mughis ar-Rumi (? – ?) captured Córdoba, Granada and other places, while he himself led the division mobilized to capture Toledo, the capital of the Visigothic Kingdom. He then continued to advance northwards and reached Guadalajara and Astorga. (459)
After winning the battle, Tariq ibn Ziyad’s forces were able to advance rapidly. They advanced towards the Visigothic capital Toledo via Córdoba and captured it. According to the “Mozarabic Chronicle”, they neutralized many Visigothic high-ranking officials here, so an organized defense of the empire was probably no longer possible. (460)
During the conquest of Toledo, the capital of the Visigothic Kingdom, by the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad and his Berber warriors, some of the city and castle populations who were dissatisfied with the Visigothic administration, especially the Jews who were subjected to heavy religious oppression, opened the city gates to Tariq ibn Ziyad’s Islamic army on their own, and the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad conquered the capital Toledo with the help of the Jews in the city. (461)
After conquering Toledo, the capital of the Visigothic Kingdom, the Visigothic Kingdom was officially overthrown and the Kurdish leader Tariq ibn Ziyad became the new ruler of Spain. (462)
Although kings in ancient times carried their treasures into battle, it was unlikely that Rodrigo would carry the royal treasury in his entourage. However, Tariq ibn Ziyad must have believed that the treasure was traveling with them and would be transported to Toledo. In July 711, Tariq ibn Ziyad left his lieutenants at strategic points (Malaga, Granada and Córdoba) and arrived in Toledo, where it was rumored that the “Table of Solomon” was there. (463)
“Solomon’s Table” is a table believed to have belonged to Solomon (990 BC – 931 BC), the son of David (1040 BC – 970 BC), who was not a prophet according to Judaism and Christianity, but only a king and “national leader”, but according to Islam, a prophet (464).
Tariq ibn Ziyad captured a table said to have 360 legs, located behind a mountainous region and attributed to Suleiman. Then he headed towards the city that would later be called Madina’tul-Maidah. (465)
Tariq ibn Ziyad later captured the city of Emaye (Amaya) and obtained a significant amount of booty, and returned to Tuleytula in 712. The route followed by Tariq ibn Ziyad during his first year of conquests in Andalusia is as follows: Djabal-i Tariq (Gibraltar), Djazira’tul-Hadrã, Barbat (Lekke) Valley, Shazūnah, Mawrour, Karmune (Carmona), Ishbiliyaa (Sevilla), Istidjdjah, Kurtuba (Córdoba), Maleka, Ghernata (Granada), Ilbirah, Tūdmir (Teodomiro), Djabban, Tuleytula and Madina’tul-Maidah. (466)
I sometimes repeat myself in the book, but it is necessary to remember some important points in order to fully understand them: The Muslims who conquered the Iberian Peninsula in 711 were mostly Berbers and were led by the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad. (467) With Tariq ibn Ziyad, for the first time, a general from among the Berbers (or born and raised among the Berbers) who later converted to Islam was commanding an “Islamic conquest” movement. (468)
According to historians, Tariq ibn Ziyad took on tasks that were never given to him, and let alone conquering Spain upon the governor of North Africa of the Umayyads, Abu Abdurrahman Musa ibn Nusayr ibn Abdurrahman Zayd al-Bakri al-Lakhmi (640 – 716)’s orders, did not even inform Musa ibn Nusayr while he was conquering Spain. When he learns about the conquest of Spain, Musa ibn Nusayr becomes very angry and starts to feel a grudge against Tariq ibn Ziyad. Musa ibn Nusayr is thinking of arresting Tariq ibn Ziyad and chaining him up, and even killing him. (469)
The Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad, who was a magnificent man, carried out this conquest independently with his own mind and the Berber warriors he gathered around him. He did not even inform Musa ibn Nusayr, in fact when Musa and the Umayyads heard about this they became very angry, they considered arresting Tariq ibn Ziyad and chaining him, and even killing him. In other words, the conquest of Spain in 711, the conquest of Andalusia, was not an achievement of the Umayyads, on the contrary, it was an achievement that was achieved despite the Umayyads. (470)
There are so many interesting things in the sources that one is truly amazed as one researches, reads and learns.
According to the sources, in the first phase of the conquest of Spain, the Islamic army consisted of Berbers from the northern regions of North Africa and groups from Western Asia. These peoples, clustered under the banner of Islam, did not mix with each other, staying in separate cities and villages. The Berbers, who had recently been suppressed and superficially “Islamized”, were responsible for the most difficult tasks and the most rugged terrain, similar to those found in their North African homeland. The people who came from Western Asia settled in the softer plains of Southern Iberia. (471)
What they call “Western Asia” is today’s Anatolia, Kurdistan and Iran. So who are these “people coming from Western Asia”?
Historians and scientists who “do not fear Allah but are very afraid of states” have hesitated to write their names, but since there was no other Muslim people in Western Asia other than the Kurds in the late 600s and early 700s, they are of course Kurds.
From these historical sources, we understand that the Muslims who conquered Spain were a Berber army led by a Kurdish commander. After the conquest, a large Berber population and a partial Kurdish population settled in the Andalusian lands. After moving to the European side, which is today’s Spanish lands, these first settlers, the Berbers and the Kurds, did not mix, but settled in separate cities and villages. Just like in the places they came from, just like their lives in their homeland, the Berbers inhabited the rugged terrain, while the Kurds settled in the soft plains of Southern Iberia.
The Muslims who entered Iberia in 711 were mostly Berbers and were led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, a Kurd. A second mixed army of Berbers arrived a year later, in 712. Berbers are said to have made up about 66% of the Islamic population of Iberia. According to one claim, they even helped Abdurrahman I ibn Muawiyah ibn Hisham ibn Abdulmalik ibn Marwan (731 – 88), the founder of the Umayyad Emirate of Cordoba, the first form of the Umayyad State of Andalusia, because his mother was Berber. (472)
Tariq ibn Ziyad led a small army in the first conquest, consisting mostly of Berbers, while Musa ibn Nusayr’s largely Arab force of over 12,000 soldiers was accompanied by a group of “mawali,” or non-Arab Muslims. The Berber soldiers who accompanied Tariq were garrisoned in the center and north of the peninsula, in the Pyrenees (473), while the Berber conquerors who followed them settled in many parts of the country, north, east, south, and west (474).
A second mixed army of Arabs and Berbers arrived a year later, in 712, under Musa ibn Nusayr himself, as mentioned above. Since his mother was Berber, it is assumed that the Berbers assisted the Umayyad Caliph Abdurrahman I in al-Andalus. (475)
Many Berbers were settled in the borderlands near Toledo, Talavera de la Reina and Mérida at that time. (476) Mérida became an important Berber stronghold in the 8th century. (477) The Berber garrison at Talavera de la Reina would later be led by Amrus ibn Yusuf al-Muwallad al-Laridi (? – 813) and would participate in military operations against the rebels in Toledo in the late 700s and early 800s. (478)
The Berbers were initially settled in the Pyrenees and Catalonia. (479) They did not settle in the major cities in the south and were generally kept in the border regions far from Córdoba. (480)
In light of all our historical readings, when we examine all sources, whether biased or impartial, a clear picture emerges, and that is this: The Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Berber raiders under the command of the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad in 711, and the Andalusian Islamic Civilization on the European continent was founded by the Berbers who conquered it. The Berbers, who were left stateless and under the yoke of the Arabs even in their homeland of North Africa, carried out such a tremendous conquest movement. However, the Arabs, who had subjugated them in their homeland of North Africa and left them stateless, did not leave them alone in Spain, which they had just conquered, and a year later they went and usurped their conquests.
The Arabs and the Umayyad Arab administration in North Africa were against such a “crazy” conquest movement from the very beginning. Because they saw it as “suicide”. However, when the conquest movement was successful, they were shocked and quickly marched on Spain to usurp this historic conquest of the Berbers.
This is exactly what happened. (481)
Let’s explain it in order: The 7,000-man Berber army under the command of Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and conquered Spanish territory. With the support of Julián, the Byzantine governor of Septe (Ceuta; then known as Septem), they crossed the Strait of Gibraltar from Septe.
The date is April 711.
Immediately after the conquest, Tariq ibn Ziyad established a headquarters in Gibraltar, which would later be named after him.
The date is April 28, 711.
Later, after receiving another 5,000-man Berber reinforcement, he decisively defeated the Visigoths under Rodrigo in the Battle of Río Guadalete, which lasted a week.
The date is July 19 – 26, 711.
The Arabs, who were astonished to hear of all these successes, and the Umayyad administration in North Africa took action at that time. The Arab Umayyads made preparations for this for a year. After a year, the Governor of Ifriqiya, Musa ibn Nusayr, marched on Spain (Andalusia) with an army of 18,000, mostly Arabs.
The date is June 712.
14 months, 1 year and 2 months, have passed since the conquest.
Almost a year and a half after Tariq ibn Ziyad conquered Spain, this time the Arab Umayyads attempted to conquer Spain. (482)
The “crucial” question here is: From whom did the Muslim Arabs try to “conquer” (!) Spain in 712?
Answer: From the Muslim Berbers who had conquered it a year earlier, in 711. From their own – supposedly – co-religionists.
The first conquest party, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, consisted mainly of Berbers who had recently converted to Islam. It is possible that this army represented a continuation of the historical pattern of large-scale conquests in Iberia dating back to the pre-Islamic period (483), and it has therefore been suggested that the conquest was not planned from the outset. Both the “Mozarabic Chronicle” (484), and later Islamic sources mention raiding activities in the previous years, and it is possible that Tariq’s army was already present some time before this decisive victory. The fact that the army was initially a Berber army led by a Kurdish commander, and that Musa ibn Nusayr, who later became the governor of the Umayyads in North Africa, did not deign to lead a “small plunder” at first, but joined the conquest the following year when the unexpected victory was certain. This is such a definite historical fact that even many Arab historians mention that Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar without informing the Umayyad governor Musa. (485) The fact that the “Mozarabic Chronicle” mentions that the people of the city fled to high ground instead of defending the city supports the idea that this was initially thought to be a temporary conquest rather than a permanent change. (486)
This information shows that they have been teaching us a history full of lies for nearly a thousand years.
There are so many interesting things in the sources that when one researches, reads and learns, one is truly astonished. And we painfully understand how they have made up and told us lies for a thousand years, and what kind of lies they have put us to sleep with, whether in schools, mosques, official education or religious education.
As I said above, the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Berber raiders under the command of the Kurdish commander Tariq ibn Ziyad in 711, and the Andalusian Islamic Civilization on the European continent was founded by the Berbers who conquered it. The Berbers, who were left stateless and under the yoke of the Arabs even in their homeland of North Africa, carried out such a tremendous conquest movement. However, the Arabs, who had subjugated them in their homeland of North Africa and left them stateless, did not leave them alone in Spain, which they had just conquered, and a year later they went and usurped their conquests.
The Arabs and the Umayyad Arab administration in North Africa were against such a “crazy” conquest movement from the very beginning. Because they saw it as “suicide”. However, when the conquest movement was successful, they were shocked and quickly marched on Spain to usurp this historic conquest of the Berbers. (487)
In June 712, Musa ibn Nusayr, the governor of North Africa of the Umayyads, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar to Spain, which had been conquered by Berber Muslims a year earlier, “to take from the hands of these brothers in religion and conquer (!)”, and usurped the command of military operations and the new Andalusian administration, as reported by both the official records of the Islamic State of Andalusia, “Ajbar Machmúa” (488), and the Andalusian Berber historian Ibn Qotiyya (489).
The successes of Tariq ibn Ziyad and his Berber conquistadors both intimidated the Arabs, who had recently occupied the Berber lands in North Africa, and aroused their appetite for Spanish territory. In June 712, the Umayyad Governor of North Africa, Musa ibn Nusayr, landed in Gibraltar with an army of 18,000 men under his command, and began a campaign to Spain, which had been conquered by Berber Muslims a year earlier, to “take from the hands of these brothers in religion and conquer (!)”. (490)
The first thing Musa ibn Nusayr, the governor of the Umayyads in North Africa, did after he set foot on Spanish soil was to order the arrest, chaining and imprisonment of Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Kurdish commander and conqueror of Andalusia, in order to re-establish the orderly hierarchy. (491)
Musa ibn Nusayr crossed into Spain with an army of 18,000 in the summer of 712 and captured the cities of Seville, Carmona, Niebla (Lablah) and Mérida (Maridah), and in the summer of 713 he met with Tariq ibn Ziyad in Toledo, the capital of the collapsed Visigothic Kingdom. (492) It is stated that during this meeting, Musa ibn Nusayr reprimanded Tariq ibn Ziyad for disobeying his orders and acting on his own. In response, it is narrated that Tariq treated Musa with respect and wanted to win his favor. (493)
What should we understand from all this? The most difficult thing in the world is to tell the truth against one’s “own stupidity” and I think we should be honest, we should tell the truth against “our own stupidity”: There is only one thing we need to understand from all this, and that is that only lies are told to us in both official and religious education by being called “History”.
What? Tariq ibn Ziyad was the commander of Musa ibn Nusayr, the governor of the Umayyads in North Africa, Musa sent Tariq to conquer Spain, when Tariq ibn Ziyad landed on the Iberian Peninsula with ships, Musa ibn Nusayr and the Umayyad sultanate in Damascus rejoiced, they immediately prostrated themselves and performed a prayer of gratitude, and then they danced an oriental dance accompanied by the songs “Shiki Shiki Baba” and “Allah Allah Ya Baba – Sidi Mansur Ya Baba”, this conquest was a great success for the Umayyads… Lie upon lie!
There are disagreements about the nature of the relationship between Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa ibn Nusayr. Some historians have recorded that Musa ibn Nusayr developed a feeling of jealousy and hatred towards Tariq ibn Ziyad after his success in the conquest of Andalusia. Just a century after the conquest of Andalusia, the Egyptian historian, hadith scholar and jurist Ibn Abdulhakam or with his full name Abu’l-Qasem Abdurrahman ibn Abdullah ibn Abdulhakam al-Misri (803 – 71) states that Musa was angry with Tariq and tried to imprison him, saying, “If it had not been for the intercession of Mughis ar-Rumi, the servant of Waleed ibn Abdulmalik, he would have intended to kill Tariq.” (494)
This was why the Umayyad Caliph of that time, Waleed ibn Abdulmalik I ibn Marwan (672 – 715), later summoned both men to Damascus. As early Andalusian news sources stated, when Tariq first met Musa in Andalusia (in Toledo), he dismounted from his horse out of respect for him, and Musa ibn Nusayr put his whip on Tariq ibn Ziyad’s head, warning him that he was acting on his own and not according to orders. (495)
Balazori or with his full name Ahmad ibn Yahya ibn Djabir ibn Dawud al-Balazori (820 – 92), a Persian historian and genealogist who lived only a century after the conquest of Andalusia, in his work “Futūh’ul-Buldan” (Conquests of Towns), which recounts the first conquests from the time of Prophet Muhammad to the 3rd century of the Hijra based on region and city, narrates that Musa wrote a harsh letter to Tariq, forbidding him to leave Kurtuba (Córdoba), but the two later reconciled. (496)
The first encounter between Musa ibn Nusayr and Tariq ibn Ziyad in Spain was in Toledo, the capital of the collapsed Visigothic Kingdom. Musa asked Tariq for the spoils he had seized and the table that was said to have “belonged to Suleyman”. Tariq ibn Ziyad delivered all the spoils, including the table, to Musa ibn Nusayr. Musa’s anger towards Tariq – supposedly – subsided and the two made peace. The two commanders continued their conquest activities towards the north of Spain on two fronts. The following year, the regions of Léon and Galicia, as well as the cities of Lérida, Barcelona and Zaragoza, were taken. Thus, for the first time in Islamic history, the Muslims reached French territory. (497) Musa was initially concerned with securing the weakly defended western flank. Carmona and Seville were also attacked, among other things. However, Mérida, which put up a strong resistance, fell to the Muslim conquerors only in June 713, after a long siege. (498)
During the later conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Muslim military leaders seem to have tried to win over the Visigothic nobility by granting them their own autonomous dominions and demanding that they only acknowledge the sovereignty of the Islamic Caliphate. According to some sources, they may have left some of the Visigothic royal property to Wittiza’s sons. It is recorded that the Visigothic duke Theodemir (? – 743), who ruled over larger areas in the Roman province of Hispania Carthaginiensis (Spanish Carthage), signed a treaty with Abdulazez ibn Musa ibn Nusayr (? – 716), the son of Musa ibn Nusayr, in April 713. Here he was confirmed as the owner of many cities, and his subjects were guaranteed their safety and the freedom to practice their religion; for this, he had to recognize Muslim hegemony and pay annual tribute. (499)
The “Theodemir-Treaty” of April 713 represented an indirect form of rule established by Abdulazez, the son of Musa ibn Nusayr, the governor of Ifriqiya of the Umayyads, over the Visigothic duke Theodemir, who ruled Hispania Carthaginiensis. The treaty stipulated that the local ruler Theodemir would retain his autonomy as long as he recognized Muslim sovereignty and paid monetary tribute, with Abdulazez as the “first governor of Andalusia”. Furthermore, Abdulazez agreed that his forces would not plunder or harass Theodemir’s district or its people. This agreement was later extended to seven more districts. (500)
The Visigothic Kingdom, a Christian state that ruled Spain before the conquest of Andalusia, pursued a terrible policy of oppression and cruelty against Jews and even different sects of Christians. Freedom of religion and belief was almost non-existent. In contrast, the Muslims respected the religion and beliefs of the Jews and even the Christians they had defeated. In return, they only asked them to pay taxes (the djizyah) and recognize Islamic rule. The local Christian Visigothic dukes, who had also gained autonomy, undertook to surrender the rebels who had “conspired against the religion of Islam”. In this way, the lives of many Christian inhabitants of Spain remained much the same as they had been before the Islamic conquest. (501)
The treaty with Theodemir set a precedent for all of Iberia and towns that surrendered to the Muslim forces suffered a similar fate, probably including the Bani Qasi dynasty in the Ebro Valley, which had converted to Islam after the conquest, and other counts and landowners. Some cities (the most important ones, for example Córdoba, Toledo, etc.) were conquered by the Muslims without any conditions, to be governed directly under Islamic rule. In what was thought to be part of the lands of the deposed King Rodrigo, Mérida put up a long resistance to the Muslim advance but was finally conquered in mid-summer 712. (502) By 713 (or 714), the last Visigothic king, Ardo (? – 721), took over from Achila II, with effective control only over Septimania and probably the coastal areas of the Pyrenean Threshold and Tarraconense. (503)
Islamic law did not apply to all subjects of the new rulers. Christians continued to be governed by their own Visigothic law (Forum Iudicum), as before. In most towns, ethnic groups were segregated, and the new ethnic groups (Berbers, Kurds, Arabs, Yemenis, and others) would build new districts outside of existing urban areas. This would not apply to towns under direct Umayyad rule, however. In Córdoba, the cathedral was divided and shared to serve the religious needs of Christians and Muslims. This situation lasted for about 40 years until Abdurrahman I ibn Muawiyah ibn Hisham ibn Abdulmalik ibn Marwan (731 – 88) conquered southern Spain in 756.
There were actually two more Visigothic kings after the deposed King Rodrigo. King Aguila II (son of Wittiza), known mainly through a few coin finds, either came to power as an opponent of Rodrigo as early as 710 (504) (a year before the conquest), or, according to other scholars, he came to power only after Rodrigo’s death with the conquest in 711. He ruled over Tarraconensis in southwestern France and parts of Septimania in north-eastern Iberia. He reigned for about three years; his reign probably ended with the Muslim conquest of the Ebro Valley and Zaragoza in 714. Ardo followed him as the last Visigothic king. His empire was gradually conquered by the Muslims, culminating in the Septimania capital of Narbonne around 720. (505)
In 714 Musa ibn Nusayr advanced northwest of the Ebro River, conquering the western Basque regions and the Cantabrian Mountains as far as Gallaecia, without encountering any relevant or proven opposition. During the reign (714 – 16) of the second (or first, depending on the sources) Arab governor Abdulazez ibn Musa (son of Musa ibn Nusayr), the main urban centres of Catalonia surrendered. In 714, Musa ibn Nusayr advanced and conquered Soria, the western Basque regions, Palencia, and as far west as Gijón or León, which were ruled by a Berber governor, without any opposition. The northern regions of Iberia received little attention from the Muslim conquerors and were difficult to defend once conquered. The high western and central Pyrenees valleys remained unconquered. Meanwhile, the Muslim forces reached Pamplona and the Basque counties surrendered after an agreement was reached with the Muslim commanders to show respect for their inhabitants. This practice was common in many counties of the Iberian Peninsula. The Muslim forces encountered little resistance. Considering the communication capabilities of the time, the three years it took to almost reach the Pyrenees, after the counties had surrendered and the necessary arrangements for their future administration had been made, was a reasonable time. (506)
Scholars and independent researchers emphasize that hostility towards Visigothic rule in some parts of the Visigothic Kingdom, including deep disagreements and resentment between the local Jewish communities and the ruling authorities to a greater extent, weakened the kingdom and played a significant role in the ultimate success of the Muslim conquest of Spain. (507)
No matter how you look at it, the conquest of Andalusia by the Muslims seems to have been accomplished with the tremendous help of the Jews in Spain. First of all, it is necessary to be honest and acknowledge this fact. Without the help of the Jews, the Muslims would never have been able to conquer Andalusia.
As a result of the conquests of the Kurdish commander of the Berbers, Tariq ibn Ziyad, and the Arab commander of the Umayyads, Musa ibn Nusayr, almost all of Spain was captured. The conquest of all of Spain, except for Asturias, a small region in the north, in a short period of three years, and the advance of the Islamic armies into the interior of France, is an important development in terms of Islamic conquest policy. (508)
However, the jealousy and hatred of the Arab commander of the Umayyads, Musa ibn Nusayr, towards the Kurdish commander of the Berbers, Tariq ibn Ziyad, had not ended. On the surface, these two seemed to have reconciled, but with his behavior and practices, Musa showed his jealousy and hatred towards Tariq at every opportunity. So much so that this rivalry and unpleasantness between the two was heard and talked about even in Damascus, the center of the caliphate, within the Umayyad Islamic Caliphate.
This had become unbearable and the Umayyad Islamic Caliphate in Damascus decided to directly intervene in the conflict between the two and – in colloquial terms – “pull their ears”. (509)
When the conquests were almost complete, the Umayyad Caliph Waleed ibn Abdulmalik I wrote a letter to these two and sent it to Andalusia through his envoy Mughis ar-Rumi. The letter requested Musa ibn Nusayr and Tariq ibn Ziyad to return to Damascus immediately and report on what had happened in Andalusia and to account to the Caliph for the disagreement between the two. The letter was very clear and the Caliph had clearly stated his position. Tariq ibn Ziyad accepted immediately, but when Musa ibn Nusayr continued the conquests a little slowly (after all, it was unfair), the Caliph had to write another letter and a second envoy named Abu Nasr came to Andalusia again with the same order. (510)
Year, 714. In other words, only 3 years after the conquest of Andalusia.
Thereupon, Musa ibn Nusayr and Tariq ibn Ziyad both left Andalusia and went to Damascus, the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate, to report to the Umayyad Caliphate about what had happened and to account to the Caliph for the quarrel between them. (511)
Neither of them ever saw the lands of Andalusia again. Because neither of them would return again, they would stay in Damascus until their deaths. (512)
When they left Andalusia, Musa ibn Nusayr left the administration of Andalusia to his son Abdulazez. Thus, the “Governors’ Period” (Asr’ul-Wulat) would begin in Andalusia and Abdulazez ibn Musa ibn Nusayr would become the first governor of Andalusia. (513) However, Abdulazez would be assassinated and killed two years later, in 716. (514)
In 714, Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa ibn Nusayr set out towards Damascus, traveling on horseback, following the route Andalusia (Spain) – Morocco – Algeria – Tunisia – Libya (Tripolitania) – Egypt – Palestine (Israel) – Lebanon – Syria.
– will continue –
FOOTNOTES:
(437): Colección de Obras Arábigas de Historia y Geografía, volume 1: “Ajbar Machmúa”, translated by Emilio Lafuente Alcántara, p. 22 (Arabic original p. 8; Spanish translation p. 21), Real Academia de la Historia, Imprenta y Estereotipia de M. Rivadeneyra, Madrid 1867 / Ibn Qotiyya, Al-Imamat wa’l-Siyasat, volume 2, p. 74, Maktabat wa Matbaat al-Halbi, Cairo 1963
(438): Roger Collins, Visigothic Spain (409 – 711), p. 141, John Wiley & Sons Publishing, New Jersey 2004
(439): Mozarabic Chronicle, p. 52, Córdoba 754 / Ahmad al-Maqqari, Nafh’ut-Teb min Ghushn’il-Andalus’ir-Ratib wa Zikru Waziriha Lisan’id-Din Ibn-il-Khatib, volume 1, p. 269, Cairo 1885
(440): İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 11, Mehmet Özdemir, article “Endülüs”, p. 211, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992
(441): See the previous section of this book titled “Why was Andalusia Conquered and How was it Conquered?”
(442): See, for example, the numerous references in the writings of Ibn Abdulhakam and some references in “Ajbar Machmúa”, especially paragraph 34.
(443): ibid / ibid
(444): Ahmad al-Maqqari, Nafh’ut-Teb min Ghushn’il-Andalus’ir-Ratib wa Zikru Waziriha Lisan’id-Din Ibn-il-Khatib, volume 1, p. 221 – 232, Cairo 1885 / see also: Charles F. Horne, The Sacred Books and Early Literature of the East, volume 6, p. 241 – 242, Parke, Austin and Lipscomb Inc. Publishing, New York & London 1917 / Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz, La España Musulmana: Según los Autores Islamitas y Cristianos Medievales, p. 48, Edición Espasa-Calpe, Madrid 1986 / Suzanne McIntire – William E. Burns, Speeches in World History, p. 85, Infobase Publishing, New York 2009 / Avner Falk, Franks and Saracens: Reality and Fantasy in the Crusades, p. 47, Karnac Books, London 2010
(445): Sharif al-Idrisi, Nūzhat’ul-Mūshtaq fi Ikhtiraq’il-Āfaq, volume 2, Rome 1592 / see also: Muhammad Abdullah Annan, Dawlat’al-Islam fi al-Andalūs, al-Djūz’al-Awala, p. 48, Nashriyat Maktabat’al-Khandji, Cairo 1997
(446): Ibn Khallikan, Wafayat’ul-Āyān we Anbā-u Abnā’iz-Zaman Mimmā Shabata bi’n-Naql awi’s-Semā aw Ashbatah’ul-Āyān, Nashriyat’al- Najjar, p. 321 – 322, Cairo 1972
(447): İslam Ansikopedisi, volume 40, İsmail Hakkı Atçeken, article “Târık b. Ziyâd”, p. 25, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 2011
(448): Feridun Bilgin, Endülüs Fatihi Tarık bin Ziyad Gemileri Yaktı mı?, İnsaniyet, 28 October 2020, https://www.insaniyet.net/endulus-fatihi-tarik-b-ziyad-gemileri-yakti-mi/
(449): See the previous section of this book titled “Was Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Conqueror of Andalusia, whose Arab or Berber Status has been Debated for a Thousand Years, Actually a Kurd?”
(450): İbrahim Sediyani, Bir Elimden Fenike Tanrıçaları Tuttu Bir Elimden Endülüs Âlimleri, Ben İbiza Adası’nda Tatil Yaparken Katalonya’nın Bağımsızlık Güneşinin Altında – 21, Sediyani Seyahatnamesi, volume 13, travel in Spain and Catalonia, part 21, 30 March 2024, https://www.sediyani.com/?p=46739
(451): Ibn Qotiyya, Tarikh-i Iftitah’al-Andalūs, p. 34 – 35, Dar’ol-Nashr’al-Djamiayni, Beirut undated
(452): Roger John Howard Collins, Early Medieval Spain, p. 151, St. Martin’s Press, New York 1983 / Luqman Nagy – Abia Afsar Siddiqui, The Book of Islamic Dynasties: A Celebration of Islamic History and Culture, p. 9, Ta-Ha Publishing, London 2008 / Brian A. Catlos, Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain, Basic Books, New York 2018
(453): P. J. Bearman – Th. Bianquis – C. E. Bosworth – E. van Donzel – W. P. Heinrichs, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, volume 10, L. Molina, article “Ṭāriḳ b. Ziyād”, p. 242, Brill Publishing, Leiden 2000 / Klaus Herbers, Geschichte Spaniens im Mittelalter, p. 77 et seq., Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 2006 / Georg Bossong, Das Maurische Spanien, p. 14 et seq., Beck Verlag, Munich 2007 / Bernard F. Reilly, The Medieval Spains, p. 52, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge & Madrid & Cape Town & New York & Melbourne 2009
(454): Ibn Izari, Al-Bayān’ol-Moghreb fi Ikhtisar-i Akhbar-i Mūlūk’il-Andalus wa’l-Maghreb, volume 2, p. 8, Algiers 1901
(455): Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz, La España Musulmana: Según los Autores Islamitas y Cristianos Medievales, p. 48 – 52, Edición Espasa-Calpe, Madrid 1986
(456): Mozarabic Chronicle, p. 52, Córdoba 754 / Ahmad al-Maqqari, Nafh’ut-Teb min Ghushn’il-Andalus’ir-Ratib wa Zikru Waziriha Lisan’id-Din Ibn-il-Khatib, volume 1, p. 269, Cairo 1885
(457): Mozarabic Chronicle, p. 52, Córdoba 754
(458): Ibn al-Qūṭiyyaẗ, Histoire de la Conquête de l’Espagne par les Musulmans, par M. A. Cherbonneau, p. 7, Imprimerie Impériale, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris 1857
(459): P. J. Bearman – Th. Bianquis – C. E. Bosworth – E. van Donzel – W. P. Heinrichs, The Encyclopaedia of Islam, volume 10, L. Molina, article “Ṭāriḳ b. Ziyād”, p. 242, Brill Publishing, Leiden 2000
(460): Mozarabic Chronicle, Córdoba 754
(461): İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 11, Mehmet Özdemir, article “Endülüs”, p. 211 – 212, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992
(462): Mozarabic Chronicle, Córdoba 754
(463): Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz, La España Musulmana: Según los Autores Islamitas y Cristianos Medievales, p. 63 – 66, Edición Espasa-Calpe, Madrid 1986
(464): İbrahim Sediyani, Kadın Peygamberler, volume 2 – 3, Nefel Yayınları, Diyarbakır 2021
(465): İslam Ansikopedisi, volume 40, İsmail Hakkı Atçeken, article “Târık b. Ziyâd”, p. 25, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 2011
(466): ibid
(467): Roger John Howard Collins, Arab Conquest of Spain (710 – 797), p. 97, Wiley & Blackwell Publishing, Oxford 1994
(468): Edgar Sommer, Kel Tamashek – Die Tuareg, p. 50 et seq., Cargo Verlag, Schwülper 2006
(469): See the previous section of this book titled “Was Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Conqueror of Andalusia, whose Arab or Berber Status has been Debated for a Thousand Years, Actually a Kurd?”
(470): See also: ibid
(471): Roger John Howard Collins, Arab Conquest of Spain (710 – 797), p. 49 – 50, Wiley & Blackwell Publishing, Oxford 1994
(472): ibid
(473): ibid, p. 8 – 9
(474): Abdulwāhid Dḥanūn Ṭāha, Early Muslim Settlement in Spain: The Berber Tribes in Al-Andalus, p. 166 – 177, Routledge Library Editions: Muslim Spain, Taylor & Francis Publishing, Abingdon & New York 1989
(475): Roger John Howard Collins, Arab Conquest of Spain (710 – 797), Wiley & Blackwell Publishing, Oxford 1994
(476): ibid, p. 195
(477): ibid, p. 201
(478): ibid, p. 210
(479): ibid, p. 88 – 89 and 195
(480): ibid, p. 207
(481): See the previous section of this book titled “Is Andalusia, an Arab Civilization, or a Berber Civilization?”
(482): William Montgomery Watt – Pierre Cachia, A History of Islamic Spain, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh 1965 / Emilio González Ferrín, Historia General de Al Ándalus, Editorial Almuzara, Córdoba 2006
(483): Hugh Nigel Kennedy, Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus, Longman Publishing, London 1996
(484): Mozarabic Chronicle, Córdoba 754
(485): Abd al-Wahid Dhannun Taha, The Muslim Conquest and Settlement of North Africa and Spain, p. 85, Routledge Publishing, London & New York 1989
(486): Mozarabic Chronicle, Córdoba 754
(487): See the previous section of this book titled “Is Andalusia, an Arab Civilization, or a Berber Civilization?”
(488): Colección de Obras Arábigas de Historia y Geografía, volume 1: “Ajbar Machmúa”, p. 28, translated by Emilio Lafuente Alcántara, Real Academia de la Historia, Imprenta y Estereotipia de M. Rivadeneyra, Madrid 1867
(489): Ibn al-Qūṭiyyaẗ, Histoire de la Conquête de l’Espagne par les Musulmans, par M. A. Cherbonneau, p. 10, Imprimerie Impériale, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris 1857
(490): Colección de Obras Arábigas de Historia y Geografía, volume 1: “Ajbar Machmúa”, p. 28, translated by Emilio Lafuente Alcántara, Real Academia de la Historia, Imprenta y Estereotipia de M. Rivadeneyra, Madrid 1867 / Ibn al-Qūṭiyyaẗ, Histoire de la Conquête de l’Espagne par les Musulmans, par M. A. Cherbonneau, p. 10, Imprimerie Impériale, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris 1857 / İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 11, Mehmet Özdemir, article “Endülüs”, p. 212, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992 / Ulrich Haarmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Welt, p. 265 et seq., Beck Verlag, Munich 1994 / John Louis Esposito, The Oxford History of Islam, p. 21, Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York 1999 / Clifford J. Rogers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, volume 1, p. 13, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010 / İslam Ansikopedisi, volume 40, İsmail Hakkı Atçeken, article “Târık b. Ziyâd”, p. 25, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 2011 / Mischa Meier, Geschichte der Völkerwanderung, p. 890, Beck Verlag, Munich 2019
(491): Ulrich Haarmann, ibid / Mischa Meier, ibid
(492): Colección de Obras Arábigas de Historia y Geografía, volume 1: “Ajbar Machmúa”, p. 28, translated by Emilio Lafuente Alcántara, Real Academia de la Historia, Imprenta y Estereotipia de M. Rivadeneyra, Madrid 1867 / Ibn al-Qūṭiyyaẗ, Histoire de la Conquête de l’Espagne par les Musulmans, par M. A. Cherbonneau, p. 10, Imprimerie Impériale, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris 1857 / İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 11, Mehmet Özdemir, article “Endülüs”, p. 212, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992 / John Louis Esposito, The Oxford History of Islam, p. 21, Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York 1999 / Clifford J. Rogers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, volume 1, p. 13, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010 / İslam Ansikopedisi, volume 40, İsmail Hakkı Atçeken, article “Târık b. Ziyâd”, p. 25, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 2011
(493): İslam Ansikopedisi, volume 40, İsmail Hakkı Atçeken, article “Târık b. Ziyâd”, p. 25, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 2011
(494): Ibn Abdolhakam, Fūtuh-u Misr wa’l-Maghreb wa’l-Andalūs wa Akhbarohā, Al-Hayyaat al-A’amat’el-Qosur al-Saqafat, p. 283, Al-Hayyaat al-E’amat’il-Qusur al-Saqafat, Cairo 1999
(495): Akhbar Madjmuāt fi Fath’al-Andalūs, Mūallif Madjhol, investigation: Ibrahim al-Libyari, p. 27, Dar’ul-Kitab Nashriyat, Cairo & Beirut 1989
(496): Balazori, Futūh’ul-Buldan, p. 239, Matbaat al-Mawsoa’at bi al-Qahira, Cairo 1901
(497): İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 11, Mehmet Özdemir, article “Endülüs”, p. 212, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992 / John Louis Esposito, The Oxford History of Islam, p. 21, Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York 1999 / Clifford J. Rogers, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Medieval Warfare and Military Technology, volume 1, p. 13, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2010 / İslam Ansikopedisi, volume 40, İsmail Hakkı Atçeken, article “Târık b. Ziyâd”, p. 25, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 2011
(498): Ulrich Haarmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Welt, p. 265 et seq., Beck Verlag, Munich 1994 / Mischa Meier, Geschichte der Völkerwanderung, p. 890, Beck Verlag, Munich 2019
(499): Klaus Herbers, Geschichte Spaniens im Mittelalter, p. 79 et seq., Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 2006
(500): Brian A. Catlos, Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain, Basic Books, New York 2018
(501): Roger John Howard Collins, The Arab Conquest of Spain (710 – 797), p. 39 – 40, Oxford University Press & Blackwell Publishing, Oxford & Cambridge 1989
(502): ibid, p. 42 – 43
(503): ibid, p. 45
(504): Klaus Herbers, Geschichte Spaniens im Mittelalter, p. 66, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 2006
(505): Ulrich Haarmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Welt, p. 266, Beck Verlag, Munich 1994 / Mischa Meier, Geschichte der Völkerwanderung, p. 890, Beck Verlag, Munich 2019
(506): Roger John Howard Collins, The Basques, p. 116, Blackwell Publishing, Cambridge 1990
(507): Norman Roth, The Jews and the Muslim Conquest of Spain, Jewish Social Studies, issue 38, p. 145 – 158, 1976, https://www.jstor.org/stable/4466922
(508): İslam Ansikopedisi, volume 40, İsmail Hakkı Atçeken, article “Târık b. Ziyâd”, p. 25, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 2011
(509): Joseph Renaud, Fi al-Qoron’as-Sameen wa’l-Ta’asiyah wa’l-Asheer’al-Miladi: Al-Futūhat’il-Islamiyya fi Feransa wa’l-Italya wa’l-Sowisra, p. 43 et seq., Éditeur Inconnu, Algiers 1984
(510): Ibn al-Qūṭiyyaẗ, Histoire de la Conquête de l’Espagne par les Musulmans, par M. A. Cherbonneau, p. 10, Imprimerie Impériale, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris 1857 / Akhbar Madjmuāt fi Fath’al-Andalūs, Mūallif Madjhol, investigation: Ibrahim al-Libyari, p. 27, Dar’ul-Kitab Nashriyat, Cairo & Beirut 1989 / Bernard F. Reilly, The Medieval Spains, p. 52, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge & Madrid & Cape Town & New York & Melbourne 2009 / İslam Ansikopedisi, volume 40, İsmail Hakkı Atçeken, article “Târık b. Ziyâd”, p. 25, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Ankara 2011
(511): ibid / ibid / ibid / ibid
(512): ibid / ibid / ibid / ibid
(513): Colección de Obras Arábigas de Historia y Geografía, volume 1: “Ajbar Machmúa”, p. 31, translated by Emilio Lafuente Alcántara, Real Academia de la Historia, Imprenta y Estereotipia de M. Rivadeneyra, Madrid 1867 / Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period, p. 71, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987 / İslam Ansiklopedisi, volume 11, Mehmet Özdemir, article “Endülüs”, p. 212, Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları, Istanbul 1992 / Ulrich Haarmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Welt, p. 266, Beck Verlag, Munich 1994 / Klaus Herbers, Geschichte Spaniens im Mittelalter, p. 79 et seq., Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 2006
(514): ibid / ibid / ibid / ibid / ibid
SEDİYANİ HABER
21 DECEMBER 2024
